PRACTICAL 

STEAM  AND  HOTW/^ 

M  E  ATI  N  G 
AND  VENTILATION 


ALFRED  G.KING 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


PRACTICAL 

/ 

STEAM  AND  HOT  WATER 
HEATING 

AND    VENTILATION 

BY  ALFRED   G.   KING 


PRACTICAL 

STEAM  AND  HOT 
WATER   HEATING 

AND    VENTILATION 


A  MODERN  PRACTICAL  WORK  ON  STEAM  AND 
HOT  WATER  HEATING  AND  VENTILATION,  WTITH 
DESCRIPTIONS  AND  DATA  OF  ALL  MATERIALS 
AND  APPLIANCES  USED  IN  THE  CONSTRUCTION 
OF  SUCH  APPARATUS;  RULES,  TABLES,  ETC. 

BY 

ALFRED    G.    KING 

(A.   G.   KING) 

AUTHOR  OF  "STEAM  AND  HOT  WATER  HEATING  CHARTS," 
"PRACTICAL  HEATING  ILLUSTRATED,"  ETC. 


CONTAINING  OVER  THREE  HUNDRED  SPECIALLY  MADE  ILLUSTRATIONS 

SHOWING  IX  DETAIL  ALL  OF  THE  VARIOUS  HEATING  SYSTEMS, 

WITH  PIPE,  RADIATOR  AND  BOILER  CONNECTIONS 


NEW  YORK 

THE   NORMAN  W.    HEXLEY  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

132  NASSAU  STEEET 

1908 


COPYRIGHTED,  1908,  BY 
THE  NORMAN  W.  HENLEY  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 


COMPOSITION,  ELECTROTYPING,  AND  PRESS- 
WORK  BY  TROW  DIRECTORY,  PRINTING  AND 
BOOKBINDING  COMPANY,  NEW  YORK,  U.  8.  A. 


PREFACE 

FROM  a  more  or  less  experimental  stage  to  one  of  an  exact 
science  has  been  the  progress  of  the  art  of  artificial  heating  and 
ventilation  during  the  period  covering  the  past  twenty-five  or 
thirty  years.  In  the  early  days  of  this  industry  there  were  but 
few  competent  fitters  located  outside  of  the  larger  cities.  However, 
of  later  years  the  above  conditions  have  changed,  due  in  a  great 
measure  to  the  constant  advancement  and  education  of  the  steam 
fitting  trade.  To-day  it  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  to  find  in  a 
small  city  or  town  one  or  more  steam  fitters  entirely  competent 
to  install  almost  any  kind  of  a  steam  or  hot-water  heating  appa- 
ratus. 

This  education  of  the  steam  fitter  has  been  accomplished  largely 
by  the  frequent  publication  in  the  trade  papers  of  much  practical 
information,  accompanied  by  drawings  and  data  which  could  be 
readily  understood  by  him. 

The  publication  of  a  number  of  books  on  the  subject  of  Steam 
and  Hot-Water  Heating  and  Ventilation  has  also  been  of  great 
assistance  to  the  steam  fitter  in  his  mental  advancement.  How- 
ever, much  of  the  matter  contained  in  these  books  is  too  technical 
and  of  a  nature  too  difficult  to  be  clearly  understood  by  a  man 
of  average  education. 

In  presenting  this  work  the  author  wishes  to  give  a  brief  history 
of  the  science  of  steam  and  hot-water  heating  and  ventilation  and 
the  early  methods  of  constructing  work,  and  to  describe  and  illus- 
trate the  advancement  and  improvements  over  the  earlier  methods. 
By  the  illustrations,  rules  and  explanations  given,  we  shall  aim  to 
make  plain  to  the  steam  fitter  or  apprentice  the  best  methods  of 

7 

179740 


8  PREFACE 

estimating  and  installing  heating  work  by  any  one  of  the  modern 
methods  or  systems  now  in  use. 

To  keep  pace  with  the  means  and  methods  employed  we  must 
be  continually  studying  and  actively  interesting  ourselves  in  the 
improvements  as  they  are  brought  out.  The  methods  of  a  score 
of  years  ago  have  given  place  to  other  and  improved  methods 
and  further  experimenting  and  study  by  the  wide-awake  American 
mechanics  are  bound  to  result  in  still  further  progress. 

To  those  authors  and  authorities  from  whose  works  we  have 
quoted  and  to  the  manufacturers  of  heating  appliances  who  have 
so  kindly  assisted  us,  we  extend  our  thanks. 

Our  effort  is  not  to  criticise  but  rather  to  comment  upon  the 
various  heating  and  ventilating  systems  in  vogue  at  the  present 
time  and  to  instruct  the  steam  fitter  in  a  practical  way  regarding 
their  application  and  installation. 

We  have  also  added  such  tables,  rules  and  general  informa- 
tion as  will  make  this  valuable  as  a  reference  book  for  the  con- 
tracting steam  fitter. 

A.  G.  KING. 

FEBRUARY,  1908. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 

Introduction — Modern  methods  of  steam  and  hot-water  heating  and  ventilation 
— Evolution  of  steam  and  hot-water  heating  and  ventilation — The  practice 
of  heating  and  ventilation — Steam  and  hot-water  heating  and  "ventilation — 
A  practical  treatise — Steam  and  hot-water  heating  and  ventilation  and 
practice  .•"-..  .  .  --.  ~.  .  .  .  ....  .  .  15 


CHAPTER  II 

Heat — Nature     of     heat — How    measured — How    transmitted — The    heat   unit 

(B.  T.  U.) — Radiating  power  of  bodies — Absorption  of  heat  .       .        .        .18 


CHAPTER  III 

Evolution  of  artificial  heating  apparatus — Open  fire-places — Stoves — Furnaces — 
Average  life  and  cost — Healthfulness — Early  type  of  boilers — Steam  boilers, 
Hot-water  heaters  22 


CHAPTER  IV 

Boiler  surfaces  and  settings — Grate  surface — Water  surface — Boiler  setting — The 
safety  valve — The  steam  gauge — The  automatic  damper  regulator — The 
water  column  and  gauge  glass — The  blow-off  cock — The  firing  tools  and 
brushes — The  fusible  plug .  .40 


CHAPTER  V 

The  chimney  flue — Sizes  of  chimneys — Elements  of  a  good  flue — Proper  construc- 
tion of  chimney  flues — Heights  of  chimneys — Table  of  heights  and  areas       .     56 


10  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  VI 

PAGE 

Pipe  and  fittings — Pipe — Table  of  sizes — Threading  of  pipe — Bending  of  pipe — 
Expansion  of  pipe — Table  of  pipe  expansion — Wrought-iron  or  steel  pipe — 
Nipples — Couplings — Fittings — Branch  tees — Flanges — Table  of  flanges 
— Measuring  pipe  and  fittings  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .63 


CHAPTER  VII 

Valves,  various  kinds — Air  valves,  various  kinds 73 

CHAPTER  VIII 

Forms  of  radiating  surfaces — Radiators — Pipe  coils — Coil  building        .        .        .     81 

CHAPTER  IX 

[Locating   of   radiating  surfaces — Direct  radiators — Indirect  radiators — Table  of 

air  ducts — Direct-indirect  radiators        .       '.        .       ,        .        .        .        .        .     91 

CHAPTER  X 

Estimating  radiation — Rules  for  estimating — For  steam — For  hot  water — Some 

dependable  rules 97 

CHAPTER  XI 

Steam-heating  apparatus — The  circuit  system — The  divided-circuit  system — The 
one-pipe  system — Dry  returns— The  overhead  system — The  two-pipe  system 
— Advantages  of  steam  heating — Tables — Sizes  of  mains  .  ..  .  ..  .103 

CHAPTER  XII 

Exhaust-steam  heating — Value   of   exhaust  steam — Necessary  fixtures — Heating 

capacity  of  exhaust  steam        .        .        ...        .        .        ...        .   115 

CHAPTER  XIII 

Hot-water  heating — Two-pipe  system — Sizes  of  mains  for  two-pipe  system — The 
expansion  tank — Water  connection — Table  of  expansion-tank  sizes — The 
overhead  system — Expansion-tank  connections  for  overhead  system — The 
circuit  system — Sizes  of  mains  for  circuit  system — Why  water  circulates  .  120 


CONTENTS  11 

CHAPTER  XIV 

PAGE 

Pressure  systems    of   hot-water  work — Table  of  temperatures — Expansion-tank 

connections  for  pressure  work — Evans  and  Almirall  systems    .        .        .        .141 


CHAPTER  XV 

Hot-water  appliances — The  altitude  gauge — The  hot-water  thermometer — Floor 
and  ceiling  plates — Pressure  appliances — The  Honeywell  system — The 
Phelps  heat  retainer 146 


CHAPTER  XVI 

Greenhouse  heating — Early  method — Modern  greenhouse  heating — Estimating 
radiation  for  greenhouses — Table  of  temperatures — Methods  of  greenhouse 
piping  if  •  .  155 


CHAPTER  XVH 

Vacuum  vapor  and  vacuum  exhaust  heating — Explanation  of  a  vacuum — Im- 
proved methods  of  exhaust  heating — The  Webster  system — The  Paul  system 
— The  Van  Auken  system — Mercury  seal  systems — The  K.M.C.  system — 
The  Trane  system — The  Ryan  system — Vapor  heating — The  Broomell 
system — Vacuum  vapor  heating — The  Gorton  system — The  vacuum-vapor 
system — Dunham  vacuo-vapor  system — The  future  of  vacuum  heating  .  163 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

Miscellaneous    heating — The    heating  of   swimming   pools — Heating   water  for 

domestic  purposes — Steam  for  cooking  and  manufacturing     ....   189 


CHAPTER  XIX 

Radiator  and  pipe  connections — Steam  radiator  connections,  hot-water  radiator 
connections — Improper  use  of  tees — Methods  of  pipe  construction — Artificial 
water-Lines — Cross-connecting  boilers — Pipe  measurements  for  45°  and  other 
angles  .  .  199 


CHAPTER  XX 

Ventilation — Importance  of  ventilation — Air  necessary  for  ventilation — Amount 

of  air  required — Methods  of  ventilation 211 


12  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXI 

PAGE 

Mechanical  ventilation  and  hot-blast  heating — Growth  and  improvement — 
Methods  employed — Exhaust  and  plenum — Heat  losses  and  heating  capacity 
required — Quality  of  the  air  supplied — An  ideal  system — Fans  for  blowing 
and  exhausting. — Types  of  heaters — Methods  of  driving  fans — Some  details 
of  construction — Factory  heating — Relative  cost  of  installation  and  opera- 
tion— Apparatus  for  testing  .  .  .  ._  .  ..  •-..',.  .  '.  .  .  224- 


CHAPTER  XXII 

Steam  appliances — Steam  traps — Return  traps — Separators — Oil  separators — 
Steam  separators — Feed-water  heaters — Steam  pumps — Boiler  feed  pumps — 
Vacuum  pumps — Pump  governors  and  regulators — Back-pressure  valves — 
Pressure-reducing  valves — Injectors — Inspirators — Automatic  water  feeders  .  262 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

District  heating — Early  methods — Modern  methods — Central  station  hot-water 

heating — Scale  of  hot-water  temperatures 288 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

Pipe  and  boiler  covering — Importance  of  covering    pipes — Saving  effected  by 

covering — Materials  used — Underground  covering     .        .        .        .        .        .  29S 


CHAPTER  XXV 

Temperature  regulation  and  heat  control — Automatic  steam  damper  regulator, 
automatic  temperature  regulators — The  Powers  thermostat,  the  Powers 
system — The  National  regulator — The  D.  &  R.  regulator — The  Howard 
regulator — The  Minneapolis  regulator — The  Lawler  thermostatic  regulator — 
The  Johnson  pneumatic  system .  .  299 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

Business  methods — Estimating — Proposal  and  bid — Specifications  for  steam  heat- 
ing— Specifications  for  hot-water  heating — Special  features  of  contracts        .   31  ft 


CONTENTS  13 

CHAPTER  XXVII 

PAGE 

Miscellaneous— Care  of  heating  apparatus— Summer  care— Proper  attention  to 
boilers— Removal  of  oil  and  dirt— Summer  tests  to  determine  efficiency- 
Care  of  tools— Labor-saving  suggestions— Bronzing,  painting,  and  decoration 
—Guaranty— Boiler  explosions — Prevention  of  boiler  explosions— Utilizing 
waste  heat  .  -  - -  .  .  329 


CHAPTER  XXVm 
Rules,  Tables,  and  Useful  Information         .        .        .       .     f 347 


PRACTICAL  HEATING  AND  VENTILATION 


CHAPTER    I 
Introduction 

IT  is  well  in  beginning  the  study  and  consideration  of  the 
science  of  heating  and  ventilation  to  look  back  to  the  start  of 
what  has  grown  to  be  one  of  our  most  important  industries. 

We  may  properly  term  it  Domestic  Engineering,  as  on  the 
work  of  the  heating  and  ventilating  engineer  depends  largely  the 
health,  and  consequently  the  happiness,  of  the  great  body  of  civ- 
ilized people  of  the  world. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  use  of  hot  water  for  heating  pur- 
poses antedates  the  use  of  steam.  We  have  a  more  or  less  obscure 
record  of  the  use  of  hot  water  in  this  respect  by  the  Romans.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  we  have  records  of  green- 
houses (at  that  time  called  "hothouses")  being  successfully 
heated  by  hot  water  and  later  in  the  same  century,  about  the 
year  1775,  we  find  a  Frenchman,  Bonnemain,  using  hot  water 
to  heat  a  brooder  on  a  chicken  farm.  This  may  be  said  to  be  the 
beginning  of  the  practical  application  of  hot  water  for  heating 
purposes. 

Steam  was  probably  first  used  for  heating  purposes  in  the  early 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  efforts  were  made  to  heat  a 
factory  by  steam  at  a  high  pressure.  The  development  of  steam 
heating  from  that  date  to  the  present  time  has  been  both  rapid 
and  constant,  although  the  last  decade  has  seen  this  industry  ad- 
vanced to  a  state  of  perfection  never  dreamed  of  by  the  early 
heating  engineers.  From  a  loose  and  haphazard  method  of  figur- 
ing and  installing  work  of  this  character,  it  has  reached  a  scientific 
stage,  and  as  such  is  more  or  less  understood  by  a  large  majority 
of  those  engaged  in  the  business. 

15 


16       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

Heating  and  Ventilation  are  kindred  trades  and  sciences,  each, 
in  a  measure,  dependent  on  the  other.  The  early  effort  to  ventilate 
the  British  House  of  Commons,  in  1723,  was  probably  the  real  be- 
ginning of  artificial  ventilation. 

Dr.  J.  F.  Desaguliers,  a  French  boy,  whose  father  removed 
to  England  when  Desaguliers  was  but  an  infant,  was,  without 
doubt,  the  most  distinguished  student  of  physics  and  mechanics  of 
that  time.  To  him  was  intrusted  the  problem  of  ventilating  the 
House  of  Commons.  Previous  to  this  date,  however,  other  plans 
had  been  tried  to  provide  a  means  of  ventilation,  but  we  believe 
the  first  scientific  study  and  experiments  were  conducted  by  Dr. 
Desaguliers. 

Efforts  were  put  forth  during  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century  to  improve  on  this  ventilating  apparatus  by  the  pro- 
viding of  large  fans  or  blowers,  which  were  propelled  by  hand. 
The  ventilation  of  other  public  buildings  was  then  undertaken 
and  the  science  had  advanced  to  such  a  stage  that  in  the  year  1824< 
an  English  engineer,  Tredgold  by  name,  published  a  book  entitled 
"  Principles  of  Warming  and  Ventilating  Public  Buildings  " — 
a  standard  work  still  referred  to  at  this  date. 

While  the  history  of  the  sciences  of  heating  and  ventilation 
and  the  endeavors  of  many  engineers  of  eminence  may  be  both 
interesting  as  well  as  instructive,  we  refer  only  to  the  beginning 
in  order  that  our  readers  may  realize,  to  the  fullest  extent,  the 
evolution  of  the  methods  of  heating  by  steam  and  hot  water  and 
ventilating  by  natural  or  mechanical  means. 

To  such  men  as  Tredgold,  Dr.  Reid,  Charles  Hood,  E.  Peclet, 
Robert  Briggs  and  others  of  earlier  date,  and  Mills,  Billings, 
Baldwin,  Carpenter  and  other  engineers  of  these  latter  times,  are 
we  indebted  for  the  advancement  and  perfecting  of  the  various 
methods  of  estimating  and  constructing  the  warming  and  ventilat- 
ing systems  of  to-day. 

The  remainder  of  the  credit  is  justly  due  to  those  who  manu- 
facture and  install  the  work  and  who  have,  by  the  use  of  modern 
machinery  and  up-to-date  ideas,  reduced  the  cost  of  steam  and 
hot-water  warming  and  ventilating  apparatus  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  place  it  within  the  reach  of  those  in  moderate  circumstances. 

Our  public  schools  are  better  warmed  and  ventilated  than  ever 


INTRODUCTION  17 

before,  as  are  also  the  majority  of  our  other  public  and  semi-public 
buildings.  Our  architects  now  study  and  consider  the  subject  of 
heating  and  ventilation  and  we  firmly  believe  that  the  coming 
decade  will  witness  far  greater  advancement  in  these  sciences  than 
we  have  known  before. 

An  estimate  made  in  the  year  1906  shows  that  but  a  little  over 
one  tenth  of  our  homes  and  public  buildings  are  provided  with 
steam  or  hot-water  heating  apparatus.  Such  an  estimate  further 
reveals  the  fact  that  less  than  two  per  cent  of  our  homes  are  pro- 
vided with  even  a  partial  ventilating  apparatus. 

As  a  nation  we  seem  to  have  been  satisfied  to  roast  one  side 
of  our  body  while  the  other  side  was  chilled,  or,  when  fresh  air 
was  absolutely  needed  in  the  room,  to  open  the  door  or  window,  re- 
gardless of  the  outside  temperature  or  the  condition  of  the  weather. 
These  sudden  changes,  of  course,  produced  colds  and  bodily  ills 
of  like  nature,  which,  no  doubt,  in  many  cases,  proved  fatal.  We 
knew  of  no  uniformity  in  either  the  temperature  of  the  house 
or  the  purity  of  the  atmosphere  in  the  several  rooms. 

Becoming  aware  of  our  mistakes  of  the  past,  we  now  demand 
a  uniform  temperature  within  our  homes ;  we  are  swiftly  coming 
to  the  conclusion  that  we  might  better  pay  the  coal  dealer  for  the 
energy  to  produce  heat,  ventilation  and  comfort  than  to  pay  our 
physician  for  doctoring  the  ills  resulting  from  our  carelessness. 

It  will  be  readily  noted  what  a  tremendous  field  there  is  for 
study  and  work  along  these  lines,  and  to  the  journeyman  steam 
fitter  or  contractor  who  fits  himself  thoroughly  for  this  work,  we 
see  an  abundant  reward  in  store. 


CHAPTER    II 

Heat 

HEAT  is  motion,  or  a  form  of  energy.  Scientists  tell  us  that 
it  is  their  belief  that  all  matter  is  made  up  of  small  vibrating  par- 
ticles called  molecules.  The  faster  these  particles  move  or  vibrate, 
the  more  heat  is  produced,  and  the  more  the  matter  or  body  is 
expanded.  This  expansion  may  be  carried  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
transform  the  body  into  another  state.  For,  example,  note  the 
formation  of  gas  from  coal  or  oil,  or  the  formation  of  steam  from 
water. 

With  a  hammer  we  may  pound  upon  a  piece  of  iron  until  it 
becomes  hot.  The  Indians  started  a  fire  by  briskly  rubbing  to- 
gether two  pieces  of  wood,  the  energy  of  motion  producing  the 
necessary  heat  to  ignite  the  dry  moss,  or  other  material  used  for 
kindling. 

The  nature  of  heat  is  peculiar  and  it  is  well  that  we  become 
somewhat  acquainted  with  these  peculiarities. 

Heat  cannot  be  measured  as  to  quantity,  but  the  intensity  of 
heat  may  be  measured  by  a  thermometer,  and  this  measure  we  call 
temperature,  and  for  registering  this  temperature  we  use  the  Fah- 
renheit scale.  For  example,  water  freezes  at  32°  F.  and  boils  at 
212°  F.  (Fahrenheit  was  a  German,  who  in  1721  made  the  first 
mercurial  thermometer. ) 

Heat  may  be  transferred  from  one  body  to  another  by  three 
distinct  methods,  namely,  Conduction,  Convection  and  Radiation. 
Lay  a  piece  of  hot  iron  upon  another  piece  of  iron,  or  a  different 
object,  and  a  certain  proportion  of  the  heat  from  the  heated  iron 
is  transferred  to  the  under  object.  This  method  is  by  Conduction. 

Water  which  has  been  heated  and  transferred  to  a  storage  tank 
through  pipes  makes  the  tank  hot.  This  is  heating  by  Convection. 

We  may  place  a  chair  too  near  a  heated  stove  and  burn  or 
blister  the  paint  or  finish  upon  same.  The  chair  has  not  been 

18 


HEAT  19 

against  the  stove,  neither  has  there  been  any  direct  connection 
between  it  and  the  heat  producer,  yet  it  has  received  the  heat  from 
the  stove  to  such  an  intensity  as  to  damage  it.  This  damage  was 
caused  by  radiation  of  heat,  the  heat  being  carried  to  the  chair 
upon  waves  of  air  usually  imperceptible  to  the  eye. 

It  is  this  latter  method  of  heat  transfer  which  is  employed  in 
the  warming  of  buildings.  The  energy  is  developed  at  a  boiler, 
or  heater,  placed  usually  in  the  basement  of  the  building,  the  heat 
being  transferred  to  the  radiators,  or  radiating  surfaces  placed 
within  or  adjacent  to  the  room  to  be  heated  and  the  heat  again 
transferred  to  the  room  by  radiation. 

While  we  cannot  properly  measure  heat  itself,  we  may  measure 
it  by  the  effect  it  produces,  and  this  is  accomplished  by  the  so-called 
Heat  Unit.  The  Heat  Unit  as  adopted  for  engineering  and  scien- 
tific purposes  is  of  three  measures :  viz.,  British,  French  and  Ger- 
man. In  this  country  it  is  the  former  that  has  come  into  general  use. 

A  British  Thermal  Heat  Unit  (B.  T.  U.)  is  the  amount  of  heat 
required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a  pound  of  water  one  degree 
Fahrenheit,  or  one  degree  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale  of  measuring. 
The  British  system  of  measuring  heating  work,  or  the  effect  pro- 
duced by  the  action  of  heat,  is  by  what  is  known  as  foot  pounds. 
Professor  Allen's  definition  of  this  term  foot  pounds  is  as  simple  as 
we  have  come  across.  He  says :  "  Ten  units  of  work  or  ten  foot 
pounds  would  be  the  amount  of  work  done  in  raising  ten  pounds 
one  foot  high,  or  one  pound  ten  feet  high."  Professor  Allen  thus 
calls  our  attention  to  the  definite  relationship  between  heat  and 
work,  which  was  probably  first  determined  by  Joule  in  1838  while 
conducting  a  series  of  experiments. 

In  measuring  work  the  term  horse  power  (H.  P.)  is  fre- 
quently made  use  of.  A  horse  power  is  33,000  foot  pounds 
per  minute,  or  the  amount  of  work  required  to  raise  33,000  pounds 
one  foot  high  per  minute,  and  this  is  equivalent  to  42.5  heat  units 
per  minute. 

As  in  this  country  the  capacity  of  all  engines  and  machinery, 
and  all  tubular  and  power  boilers,  is  expressed  by  horse  power,  it 
is  well  to  remember  that  a  horse  power  represents  the  energy  de- 
veloped by  evaporating  2.655  pounds  of  water  into  steam,  and 
which  is  sufficient  to  supply  100  square  feet  of  radiation.  Fur- 


20       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

thermore,  a  horse  power  represents  the  condensation  from  100 
square  feet  of  direct  cast-iron  radiation,  or  approximately  90 
square  feet  of  pipe  radiation  or  heating  coils. 

The  steam  is  condensed  by  loss  of  heat  or  cooling,  and  we 
must  know  in  what  manner  certain  elements  act  upon  the  heating 
surface  to  cool  it,  and  again  in  what  manner  the  heat  is  given  off 
from  the  radiator  or  heated  body. 

All  building  material  is  porous  and  there  is  a  loss  of  heat 
through  walls  and  window  glass.  Again,  a  ventilating  register 
may  be  open  in  the  room.  There  is  a  constant  loss  of  heat  through 
this  aperture  until  such  time  as  it  is  closed.  Therefore,  to  de- 
termine upon  the  amount  of  heat  necessary  we  must  take  into  con- 
sideration all  heat  losses  and  this  we  shall  discuss  later  on  in  this 
work. 

Heat  is  radiated  in  straight  lines  or  in  waves  from  a  heated 
body.  If  certain  objects  are  placed  in  the  line  of  these  waves  they 
will  absorb  the  heat  and  transmit  it  again  to  some  cooler  body. 
On  the  contrary,  such  substances  as  magnesia,  asbestos,  hair  felt, 
and  the  like,  will  prevent  the  radiation  of  the  heat  beyond  their 
influence.  For  example,  note  the  plastic  covering  on  boilers,  or  the 
asbestos  and  hair-felt  coverings  placed  on  steam  and  hot-water 
pipes.  Air  and  other  gases  are  almost  transparent  to  heat  and,  in 
fact,  in  many  cases  assist  in  conveying  it  from  the  source  of  energy 
to  the  body  to  be  warmed. 

The  radiating  power  of  bodies  differs  materially.  Polished  or 
enameled  surfaces  radiate  less  heat  than  rough  or  unfinished  sur- 
faces. Peclet  gives  the  following  table  of  the  radiating  power  of 
bodies,  the  figures  equaling  heat  units  given  off  from  a  square  foot 
of  surface  per  hour  for  a  difference  of  one  degree  Fahrenheit : 

TABLE  NO.  I 

RADIATING  POWER  OF  BODIES 


Polished  Copper 0327 

Sheet  Iron 0920 

Glass 5940 

Cast  Iron  (rusted) 6480 

Stone,  Wood  or  Brick 7358 

Woolen  Material 7522 

Water...  1.0850 


HEAT  21 

A  cast-iron  radiator  will  radiate  much  less  heat  when  enameled 
than  when  painted  with  bronze  or  a  mineral  paint. 

Specific  heat  is  the  amount  of  heat  necessary  to  raise  the  tem- 
perature of  a  solid  or  liquid  body  a  certain  number  of  degrees, 
taking  water  as  a  unit  or  standard  of  comparison. 

Some  bodies  absorb  heat  more  rapidly  than  others.  According 
to  Walter  Jones,  M.E.,  the  heat  necessary  to  raise  one  pound  of 
water  one  degree  will  raise 


32  Ibs.  of  Lead 

31  Ibs.  of  Mercury 

9  Ibs.  of  Iron 

41/2  Ibs.  of  Air 

or  2  Ibs.  of  Ice 


one  degree. 


For  the  practical  purposes  of  the  steam  fitter  it  is  necessary  only 
that  he  consider: 

1.  The  energy  necessary  to  produce  a  certain  amount  of  heat, 
or  number  of  heat  units ;  how  produced,  and  how  measured. 

2.  How  these  heat  units  may  be  transferred,  radiated  or  con- 
ducted from  one  body  to  another. 

3.  The  effect  of  this  heat  upon  the  cooler  body  to  which  it  is 
transferred,  or  the  so-called  cooling  surfaces  of  a  room  or  building. 

4.  .  The  percentage  of  loss  of  energy  by  radiation,  or  other- 
wise, between  the  production  of  the  heat  and  its  delivery  to  the 
bod\T  to  be  warmed. 

In  the  discussion  of  radiation,  ventilation,  etc.,  we  shall  give 
other  peculiarities  and  facts  regarding  the  loss  of  heat,  the  causes 
leading  to  the  same  and  rules  for  providing  against  the  amount 
of  heat  loss  under  varying  conditions. 


CHAPTER    III 
Evolution  of  Artificial  Heating  Apparatus 

THE  arrangement  of  some  form  or  method  of  securing  warmth 
within  our  homes  or  buildings  is  a  matter  to  which  our  attention 
has  grown  in  keeping  with  our  advancement  as  a  nation. 

History  relates  that  among  the  ancient  Romans  it  was  custom- 
ary for  the  poorer  class  to  build  fires  upon  a  stone  or  brick  floor 
located  at  one  side  or  end  of  a  room,  the  smoke  and  soot  passing 
out  of  -the  room  through  holes  in  the  roof.  The  wealthier  class 
used  braziers  in  their  living  rooms,  in  which  was  burned  carefully 
dried  wood. 

The  heating  apparatus  of  our  forefathers  was  the  open  fire- 
place, and  it  is  related  of  the  old  New  England  type  of  fireplace 
that  it  was  six  or  eight  feet  in  length  and  so  deep  that  the  children 
had  blocks  on  which  they  sat  far  within,  where  they  could  see  the 
stars  up  the  chimney.  Large  logs  of  wood  were  used  for  fuel. 
Later,  after  coal  could  be  purchased,  the  fireplace  was  built  very 
much  smaller. 

In  either  case  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  heat  thus  obtained 
escaped  up  the  chimney,  probably  from  seventy-five  to  ninety  per 
cent  being  lost  in  this  manner. 

As  the  country  grew  in  population,  cities  and  towns  sprang 
up  and  fuel  became  scarcer.  Larger  buildings  were  erected  and 
the  number  of  rooms  increased  until,  as  a  matter  of  economy,  it 
became  necessary  to  provide  some  other  form  of  heating  apparatus. 

To  this  end  the  old  Franklin  stove  was  designed,  followed  by 
later  styles  more  improved,  all  in  order  to  provide  better  combus- 
tion and  save  the  lost  heat. 

Again  was  "  necessity  the  mother  of  invention,"  as,  to  save 
labor  of  carrying  fuel  and  ashes  for  many  fires,  the  idea  of  cen- 
tralizing the  heating  apparatus  and  of  warming  several  rooms 

from  one  fire,  led  to  the  adoption  of  the  inclosed  stove.     Tin  or 

22 


EVOLUTION    OF    HEATING    APPARATUS  23 

sheet-iron  pipes  were  used  to  convey  the  heated  air  to  each  separate 
room  and  from  this  arrangement  developed  the  modern  furnace. 

Experiments  were  next  conducted  with  heated  water  and  steam 
as  means  of  conveying  heat  from  a  central  point  to  various  parts 
of  a  building,  a  form  of  heating  which  has  been  carried  to  such 
a  state  of  perfection  as  to  warrant  the  use  of  either  system  under 
almost  any  known  condition,  and  the  establishing  of  foundries  and 
shops  for  the  manufacture  of  heating  apparatus.  The  develop- 
ment has  been  such  that  at  the  present  time  there  are  many  millions 
of  dollars  invested  in  the  business  of  manufacturing  and  installing 
apparatus  for  heating  by  steam  and  hot  water. 

The  relative  efficiency  of  the  several  methods  of  heating  may  be 
given  as  follows: 

1.  Open  Fireplaces. 

2.  Stoves. 

3.  Hot-Air  Furnaces. 

4.  Steam. 

5.  Hot  Water. 

In  classifying  them  in  this  order,  we  consider  not  only  efficiency, 
but  healthfulness,  durability,  and  cost  of  maintenance,  i.  e.,  cost 
for  fuel. 

Were  healthfulness  alone  considered,  we  should  prefer  the  open 
fireplace  to  either  stoves  or  furnaces.  The  waste  of  fuel  in  fireplaces 
and  stoves,  largely  also  in  hot-air  furnaces,  is  too  well  known  to 
need  many  comments. 

Fireplaces  radiate  the  heat  from  one  side  of  the  room  only, 
and  stoves  warm  but  in  spots. 

Furnaces  fail  to  produce  the  right  results  when  placed  in  build- 
ings not  well  protected  from  the  wind ;  and  there  is  no  uniformity 
in  temperature  where  any  one  of  the  three  above-mentioned  sys- 
tems are  used. 

Furnaces  as  ordinarily  installed  are  not  much  more  satisfactory 
than  stoves,  and  nine  tenths  of  them  are  too  small.  They  are  used 
in  preference  to  a  steam  or  hot-water  apparatus  because  of  the 
apparent  saving  in  cost.  We  say  apparent  saving  in  cost,  as  after 
all  things  are  weighed,  there  is  no  saving  in  using  a  furnace  in 
preference  to  steam  or  hot  water,  and  it  is  well  that  the  steam 
fitter  or  heating  contractor  has  this  fact  clearly  in  mind.  There- 


24       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

fore,  we  shall  discuss  this  feature  of  furnace  heating  very  freely 
and  shall  consider  the  matter,  endeavoring  to  show  a  comparison 
between  the  furnace  and  steam  or  hot-water  heat. 

First:  As  to  cost  and  average  life  of  the  apparatus. 

Second:  As  to  comfort  and  healthfulness. 

Average  Life  and  Cost 

Where  a  furnace  too  small  is  installed,  it  is  necessary,  in  ex- 
treme cold  weather,  to  raise  the  heating  surfaces  to  an  exceedingly 
high  temperature,  often  a  red  heat,  in  order  to  secure  comfort. 
As  a  result,  the  expansion  and  contraction  loosens  the  joints  of  the 
furnace  and  allows  the  sulphurous  and  carbonic-oxide  gases  and 
other  poisonous  products  of  combustion  to  escape  through  the  hot- 
air  pipes  into  the  rooms  above.  This  is  true  of  both  wrought- 
iron  and  cast-iron  furnaces. 

Again,  heating  the  furnace  to  this  extremely  high  temperature 
shortens  the  life  of  the  apparatus,  with  the  result  that  ten  per  cent 
of  the  first  cost  is  needed  for  repairs  during  the  first  five  years, 
while,  as  a  rule,  the  next  five  years  find  the  furnace  entirely  worn 
out. 

A  steam-heating  apparatus  has  an  average  life  of  probably 
twenty-five  years,  the  first  ten  years  of  this  period  without  any 
repairs  except  of  a  trivial  nature,  such  as  the  repacking  of  valves, 
etc. 

A  hot-water-heating  apparatus  will  last  an  even  greater  length 
of  time,  without  the  expense  of  repairs,  the  system  being  practi- 
cally indestructible.  Thus  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  while  the 
cost  of  a  furnace,  as  usually  installed,  is  but  one  half  that  of  a 
steam-heating  apparatus,  or  probably  two  fifths  that  of  a  hot- 
water-heating  apparatus,  it  is,  as  an  investment,  not  counting 
healthfulness  or  the  excess  amount  of  fuel  consumed,  by  far  the 
more  costly  of  the  three  systems. 

In  pondering  the  question  of  cost,  we  have  not  taken  into  con- 
sideration the  long  list  of  fires  and  damaged  buildings  resulting 
from  the  "  defective  flue,"  nor  the  damage  to  house  furnishings, 
due  to  dust  and  dirt  from  the  furnace.  The  housewife,  more  than 
anyone  else,  knows  of  the  constant  dusting  and  cleaning  and  the 
frequency  with  which  it  is  necessary  to  renew  carpets  and  draperies. 


EVOLUTION    OF    HEATING    APPARATUS  25 

Healthfulness  of  Furnace  Heating  vs.  Steam  or  Hot  Water 

We  have  mentioned  some  of  the  disadvantages  of  heating  with 
a  furnace.  Let  us  now  consider  the  healthfulness  of  the  various 
systems,  the  quality  of  the  heat  produced  and  its  effect  on  the 
human  system. 

A  furnace  must  of  necessity  have  an  air  supply.  The  source 
of  this  air  supply  is  often  very  had.  Perhaps  the  air  is  admitted 
to  the  furnace  direct  from  the  basement  or  cellar  in  which  it  is 
located.  This  air  may  be  contaminated  with  the  odors  from  de- 
caying vegetable  matter,  or  gases  from  a  sewer.  The  air  is  ad- 
mitted to  the  furnace  at  its  base,  or  from  underneath  the  base,  and 
when  a  fresh  air  supply  is  taken  from  outside  the  building,  it  is 
frequently  conveyed  to  the  furnace  through  an  underground  duct 
which  is  not  air  tight,  with  the  result  that  it  gathers  impurities 
from  the  earth.  The  duct  may  run  across  the  basement  floor  and 
if  not  air  tight,  will,  owing  to  the  draught  produced  by  the  fur- 
nace, suck  in  the  impure  air  from  the  basement  through  the  numer- 
ous cracks  or  crevices.  With  an  impure  air  supply,  it  is  impossible 
to  serve  the  occupants  of  the  building  with  pure  air.  Again,  the 
air  is  devitalized  by  passing  over  metal,  heated  often  to  1,200  or 
1,500  degrees  Fahr.,  which  robs  it  of  all  its  health-giving  prop- 
erties. 

The  advocate  of  the  furnace  will  endeavor  to  tell  of  the  pure 
air  which  is  constantly  admitted  to  the  building,  and  its  advan- 
tages— an  exploded  theory,  as  every  heating  and  ventilating  en- 
gineer knows. 

What  then  with  devitalized  air,  often  charged  with  dust  or 
poisoned  by  gases,  can  we  say  in  favor  of  the  healthfulness  of  heat- 
ing with  a  hot-air  furnace?  Nothing,  except  possibly  the  apparent 
saving  in  first  cost  and  the  freedom  of  the  house  owner  from  par- 
ticipating in  the  "  semiannual  stovepipe  performance,"  viz. — that 
of  taking  down  or  putting  up  a  miscellaneous  assortment  of 
stovepipe  loaded  with  soot,  as  would  be  the  case  where  stoves 
were  used. 

Heating  by  either  steam  or  hot  water  has  none  of  the  disad- 
vantages mentioned  and  for  this  reason,  since  the  large  reduction 
in  cost  during  the  last  decade,  have  in  their  several  forms  and 


26       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

variations,  been  generally  adopted  as  the  best  methods  of  heating 
known. 

There  are  many  buildings  more  or  less  protected  from  the  vari- 
able winds  of  winter,  where  a  furnace  properly  installed  will  heat 
all  parts  of  the  building  to  a  uniformly  comfortable  temperature. 
We  emphasize  "  properly  installed  "  and  "  all  parts  "  for  the  rea- 
son that  the  average  furnace  has  neither  of  these  conditions  to 
recommend  it.  As  a  rule,  the  contractor  setting  the  furnace 
places  it  near  to  the  center  of  the  basement  in  order  to  shorten 
the  hot-air  supply  pipes  and  thereby  simplify  or  cheapen  the  work. 
It  is  impossible  to  force  the  heated  air  to  the  side  of  the  building 
against  which  the  wind  is  blowing,  and  for  this  reason  the  furnace 
should  be  set  near  to  the  side  which  most  frequently  receives  the 
action  of  the  wind.  We  think  it  safe  to  say  that  a  furnace  installed 
in  this  manner  and  built  heavy  enough  to  last'  a  considerable  term 
of  years,  with  the  tin  work  of  first  quality,  will  cost  one  third  more 
than  the  average  furnace  job  as  regularly  installed,  or  to  within 
a  very  small  amount  of  the  price  of  a  low-pressure  steam-heating 
apparatus. 

The  Heart  of  the  System 

In  a  steam  or  hot-water  heating  apparatus,  the  boiler  or 
heater  is  the  real  heart  of  the  system  and  largely  upon  the  char- 
acter of  the  boiler  or  heater  installed,  depends  the  success  of  the 
apparatus  as  a  whole. 

It  has  become  customary  to  refer  to  the  heart  of  a  steam-heat- 
ing apparatus  as  a  "  boiler,"  and  to  the  heart  of  a  hot-water-heat- 
ing apparatus  as  a  "  heater,"  probably  from  the  fact  that  in  a 
steam-heating  apparatus  it  is  necessary  to  boil  the  water  to  make 
steam,  while  in  a  hot-water-heating  apparatus  it  is  necessary  only 
to  heat  or  expand  the  water  in  the  heater  to  produce  a  circulation 
in  the  system. 

Early  Types  of  Boilers 

There  seems  to  be  no  question  but  that  the  original  type  of 
boiler  used  for  steam  heating  was  the  horizontal  tubular,  or  the 
upright  tubular  wrought-iron  boiler,  or  the  same  character  of  a 
boiler  as  was  used  for  power,  and  very  much  the  same  in  outward 
appearance  as  those  in  use  to-day. 


EVOLUTION    OF    HEATING    APPARATUS  27 

Fig.    1    shows  a  standard   make   of  tubular  boiler,  with   full- 
arch  front  and  manner  of  bricking. 


FIG.  1.— Standard  type  of  tubular  boiler  with  full-arch  front. 

Fig.  2  shows  the  same  character  of  a  boiler,  with  half-arch  front 
and  manner  of  bricking. 

Under  "  Boiler  Setting "  will  be  found  explanations  and  di- 


FIG.  2. — Standard  type  of  tubular  boiler  with  half-arch  front. 

rections  for  setting  each  of  the  above,  with  sketches  showing  ground 
plan,  longitudinal  section  and  cross  section  of  brickwork,  etc. 
The  original  type  of  upright  tubular  was  mounted  on  a  brick 


28       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


and  iron  base,  forming  the  ash  pit  and  supporting  the  grate. 
Fig.  3  shows  this  boiler  as  it  is  now  commonly  used,  with  a  cast- 
iron  portable  base  and  without  brickwork. 

One  of  the  earliest  types  of  wrought-iron  boilers  used  exclu- 
sively for  heating  purposes  was  designed  and  patented  by  Mr. 
William  B.  Dunning,  of  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  and  is  yet  manufactured 
as  the  Dunning  Boiler  in  an  improved  form  by  the  New  York  Cen- 
tral Iron  Works  Company. 

Fig.  4  shows  the  shell  of  this  boiler;  Fig.  5,  the  boiler  as  it 
appears  when  bricked. 

Another  early  type  and  somewhat  similar  character  of  a  boiler 


FIG.  3. — Common  type  of  upright 
tubular  boiler. 


FIG.  4. — Shell  of  Dunning  boiler. 


is  shown  by  Fig.  6.  This  is  known  as  the  "  Haxtun  "  boiler,  manu- 
factured by  the  Kewanee  Boiler  Company,  Kewanee,  111. 

Many  other  boilers  of  similar  construction  were  built  and  sold, 
following  the  introduction  of  those  illustrated,  some  of  them  having 
a  local  sale  only,  being  used  in  the  immediate  vicinity  where  they 
were  manufactured. 

It  is  probable  that  the  H.  B.  Smith  Company,  of  Westfield, 
Mass.,  were  the  pioneers  in  the  manufacture  of  the  cast-iron  boiler 
for  steam  heating,  as  the  Gold  Boiler  (see  Fig.  7),  manufactured 


EVOLUTION    OF    HEATING    APPARATUS  29 

by  this  concern,  was  undoubtedly  the  first  of  the  cast-iron  steam 
boilers,  and  as  such  should  receive  more  than  a  passing  mention. 


FIG.  5. — Dunning  boiler  set  in  brickwork. 

Reference   to   the   illustration    (Fig.    8)    will   show   the   Mills 
Boiler  and  the  manner  in  which  this  boiler  is  constructed.     The 


FIG.  6.— The  Haxtun  boiler. 

sections  are  cast  in  halves,  and  on  the  square  or  rectangular  base 
supporting  the  grate,  these  half  sections  are  erected  in  pairs.     The 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


upper  parts  of  the  half  sections  are  joined  to  a  central  dome  or 
header,  lock-nut  nipples  being  used  for  this  purpose.  The  upper 
part  of  each  half  section,  as  well  as  the  header  suspended  between 
these  half  sections,  form  a  steam  chamber  from  which  the  supply 


FIG.  7.— The  Gold  boiler. 


pipes  are  taken.  In  depth  these  sections  are  about  six  inches,  and 
they  may  be  arranged  to  form  a  boiler  of  practically  any  size 
desired. 

Along  either  side  of  the  boiler  is  a  cast-iron  header  into  which 


FIG.  8.— The  Mills  boiler. 

the  various  return  pipes  are  connected,  the  water  being  admitted 
to  the  boiler  through  nipples  connecting  each  individual  half  sec- 
tion with  the  return  header.  This  connection  is  made  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  connections  to  the  steam  header  with  lock-nut 


EVOLUTION    OF    HEATING    APPARATUS  31 

nipples.     Each  half  section,  therefore,  is  a  unit  or  boiler  by  itself, 
contributing  its  quota  of  steam  to  the  steam  chamber  above. 
This  proved  to  be  a  very  strong  type  of  boiler,  able  to  withstand 


OOOGO 
oooco 

000 

00 


FlG.  9. — Locomotive  fire-box  boiler. 

a    considerable   pressure    and  being    also    a    quick    and   powerful 
steamer. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  some  of  the  more  modern  boilers  are 


FIG.  10. — Locomotive  fire-box  boiler  sho\ving  smoke  travel. 

built  along  the  lines  of  the  Mills  Boiler,  without  the  brick  setting. 
We  refer  to  the  "  divided-section  "  or  "  half-section  "  idea  of 
boiler  construction  which  we  illustrate  elsewhere. 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


Aside  from  those  already  mentioned,  the  most  common  type  of 
wrought-iron  boiler  now  used  for  heating  is  the  locomotive  fire- 
box boiler,  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  9  and  Fig.  10.  Fig.  9  shows  a 
view  of  the  boiler  as  it  appears  in  the  bricking,  and  Fig.  10  shows 
the  smoke  travel.  In  some  localities  these  boilers  are  used  largely 


FIG.  11. — Page  safety  sectional  boiler. 


FIG.  12. — Original  type  of  Furman  boiler. 


FIG.  13. — Original  type  of 
Volunteer  boiler. 


FIG.  14.— The  Florida 
boiler. 


in  apartment  houses  and  business  blocks,  and  while  there  is  con- 
siderable argument  as  to  their  longevity  and  economical  qualities, 
it  is  an  established  fact  that  they  are  comparatively  quick  steam- 
ers and  do  the  work  required  of  them. 

Still  another  of  the  early  types  of  sectional  brick-set  boilers  is 


EVOLUTION    OF    HEATING    APPARATUS 


33 


shown  by  Fig.  11.  It  is  the  Page  Safety  Sectional  Boiler  and  it 
also  is  capable  of  withstanding  a  heavy  pressure  for  a  cast-iron 
heater.  A  few  of  the  earlier  designs  of  heating  boilers  had  maga- 


FIG.  15.— The  All  Right  boiler. 


FIG.  16.— The  Bundy  cast-iron  tubular 
boiler. 


zine  feeds  similar  to  that  of  a  parlor  stove,  although  at  the  present 
time  the  number  of  boilers  sold  so  equipped  is  very  small. 

The  Furman  Boiler,  Fig.  12,  the  Volunteer  Boiler,  Fig.  13,  the 


FIG.  17. — Sections  of  cast-iron  tubular  boiler. 

Florida  Boiler,  Fig.  14,  the  All  Right,  Fig.  15,  comprise  some  of 
the  earlier  round  and  sectional  boilers. 

Many  of  the  early  models  of  round  boilers  were  cased  with  a 
jacket  of  black  or  galvanized  iron,  frequently  lined  with  asbestos. 


34       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

The  latest  method  of  boiler  construction,  however,  dispenses  with 
the  brick  setting  and  the  sheet-iron  casing,  the  sectional,  as  well 
as  the  round  boilers,  being  portable,  and,  when  covered,  are  coated 
to  the  depth  of  1",  or  more,  with  a  plastic  cement  made  of  a  mix- 
ture of  magnesia  and  asbestos. 

A  departure  from  the  regular  style  of  cast-iron  sectional  boiler 
is  shown  by  Figs.  16  and  17.     It  is  the  Buridy  Tubular  Boiler 


FIG.  18.— The  Gorton  boiler. 

and  is  on  the  order  of  the  Scotch  Marine  type  of  construction. 
The  Gorton  Side-feed  Boiler,  as  shown  by  Fig.  18,  is  a  peculiar 
type  of  wrought-iron  boiler  construction. 

So  rapid  has  been  the  advancement  in  methods  of  boiler  con- 
struction during  the  past  ten  to  twenty  years  that  a  large  number 
of  styles  have  been  and  are  now  being  manufactured,  approximat- 
ing probably  over  one  hundred  varieties. 

Among  the  round  boilers  may  be  found,  in  addition  to  those 


EVOLUTION    OF    HEATING    APPARATUS 


35 


already  mentioned,  the  Doric,  Richardson,  Boynton,  Cambridge, 
Ideal,  Richmond,  Orbis,  Winchester,  Capitol  Mascot,  Arco  and 
Radiant. 

In  the  list  of  manufactured  sectional  boilers  we  find  the  Mercer, 
Richmond,  American,  Ideal,  Thermo,  Carton,   Sunray,   Sunshine, 


FIG.  19.— Early  type  of  Gurney  hot- 
water  heater. 


FIG.  20.— The  Spence 
hot-water  heater. 


Boynton,  Cornell,  Monarch,  Furman,  Capitol,  Gem,  Model, 
Thatcher,  Richardson,  Royal  and  many  others  which  lack  of  space 
prevents  our  mentioning. 

Hot-Water  Heaters 

What  has  been  said  regarding  the  multiplicity  of  steam  boilers 
is  equally  applicable  to  hot-water  heaters. 

One  of  the  pioneer  heaters  was  the  Gurney,  shown  by  Fig.  19. 
In  the  Spence  Heater,  Fig.  20,  we  have  another  early  design  of  a 
hot-water  heater.  Each  of  these  heaters  was  originally  made  in 
Canada,  as  was  also  the  Champion,  a  heater  of  square  construction 
manufactured  at  Montreal  by  Rogers  &  King. 

The  Spence  Heater  in  Canada  was  known  by  the  name 
"  Daisy,"  and  it  was  after  being  brought  to  this  country  that  it 
was  called  the  "  Spence."  This  heater  in  this  country  was  orig- 
inally manufactured  by  The  National  Hot  Water  Heater  Co., 


36       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


of  Boston,  Mass.,  long  since  out  of  business,  and  is  now  one  of  the 
productions  of  the  Pierce,  Butler  &  Pierce  Mfg.  Co.,  Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y. 

The  firm  of  E.  &  C.  Gurney  Co.,  of  Toronto,  Canada,  were  the 


FIG.  21. — Improved  Gurney 
heater. 


FIG.  22.— The  Perfect  hot- 
water  heater. 


original  builders  of  the  Gurney,  which,  when  brought  to  this  coun- 
try in  the  year  1884,  was  manufactured  under  the  same  firm  name, 
but  now  known  as  the  Gurney  Heater  Mfg.  Co.  This  boiler  was 


FIG.  23. — The  Hitchings  hot- water 
heater. 


FIG.  24. — Sectional  view  of  hot-water 
heater. 


further  improved  as  shown  by  Fig.  21,  and  later,  still  other  im- 
provements were  made  in  its  construction. 

The  Perfect  Heater,  Fig.  22,  was  another  of  the  old-time 
heaters  which  helped  to  contribute  to  the  success  of  hot-water 
heating  in  this  country. 


EVOLUTION    OF    HEATING    APPARATUS  37 

We  have  still  another  type  in  the  Hitchings  Boiler,  Fig.  23 
and  Fig.  24.  This  was  an  old-time  cast-iron  heater  of  peculiar 
construction,  originally  intended  for  the  heating  of  hothouses, 
and  known  as  a  Corrugated  Fire-Box  Boiler.  It  was  first  made 
about  the  year  1867.  The  concern  who  manufactured  it  was  es- 
tablished in  1844,  and  their  first  production  was  a  conical-shaped 
affair. 

Fig.  25  shows  the  Carton,  one  of  a  number  of  later  styles  of 
sectional  hot-water  heaters. 

The  advancement  in  the  manufacture  of  hot-water  heaters  has 
kept  pace  with  the  improvements  in  the  steam  boiler,  and  many 


FIG.  25.— The  Carton  hot-water  heater. 

manufacturers  make  both  steam  and  hot-water  heaters  under  the 
same  name  and  with  the  same  general  form  of  construction. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  half-section  or  divided-section  type  of 
boiler  construction,  as  shown  by  the  original  Mills  Boiler.  This 
has,  in  a  very  great  measure,  come  to  be  a  favorite  method  of  build- 
ing sectional  boilers.  The  Capitol,  The  Monarch  Sunshine,  and 
the  Henderson  Thermo  are  boilers  of  this  type.  Fig.  26  shows  a 
line  drawing  of  the  Thermo,  illustrating  the  style  of  sections  and 
the  manner  of  nippling  them  together. 

Naturally  it  would  seem  that  with  such  a  large  number  of 
makes  and  types  of  boilers,  the  steam  fitter  or  heating  contractor 
would  get  confused  in  the  selection  of  a  suitable  boiler  or  heater, 
but  such  should  not  be  the  case.  Each  individual  fitter  may  have 


38       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

his  own  ideas  of  what  constitutes  a  good  boiler  or  heater,  and 
select  his  favorite  type  of  boiler  construction.  Again,  his  cus- 
tomer may  have  previously  decided  upon  the  make  of  heater  he 


FIG.  26. — Line  cut  of  the  Thermo  hot-water  heater. 

wishes  installed, — a  fact  which  the  fitter  cannot  afford  to  overlook, 
as  it  is  much  easier  to  sell  a  prospective  customer  what  he  wants 
than  what  he  does  not  desire,  or  thinks  that  he  does  not. 

What  Constitutes  a  Good  Boiler 

There  are  a  number  of  features  that  should  be  considered  when 
endeavoring  to  select  a  good  boiler  for  steam  heating,  or  a  heater 
for  hot-water  heating.  A  few  pointers  : 

1.  Select  a  boiler  manufactured  by  a  Company  or  firm  of 
unquestioned  business  standing — a  reputable  concern  whose  guar- 
antee is  good.  Reliable  manufacturers  of  first-class  goods  never 


EVOLUTION    OF    HEATING    APPARATUS  39 

hesitate   to   make  good  any  defect   which   may  develop   in  their 
product. 

2.  Select  a  boiler  which  is  so  constructed  as  to  permit  of  easy 
and  perfect  cleaning  of  all  heating  surfaces.     Soot  is  one  of  the 
greatest   of  nonconductors  and  a  boiler  which   cannot  be   thor- 
oughly cleaned,  while  it  is  in  operation,  will  be  expensive  to  use 
and  short-lived. 

3.  The  fire  box  should  be  spacious  and  deep  below  the  feed 
door,  in  order  to  provide  for  perfect  combustion  and  a  depth  of 
fire  that  will  last  for  hours  without  attention. 

4.  The  boiler  should  have  no  packed  joints  to  dry  out  and  leak. 
Push  or  screw  nipples   should  be  the  medium  for  connecting  the 
various  parts ;  and  so   far  as   is   possible,  no   bolts   should   pass 
through  the  water  ways. 

5.  The  grate  is  a  particular  part  of  the  apparatus.     It  should 
be  of  such  a  construction  as  to  admit  of  easy  cleaning  and  at 
the  same  time  heavy  enough  to  carry  its  load  of  coal  without  sag- 
ging.   The  grate  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  be  readily  removable 
from  the  heater  and  replaced,  in  case  repairs  are  necessary. 

6.  Select  a  boiler  with  a  large  amount  of  fire  surface  and  so 
constructed  as  to  have  sufficient  fire  travel,  or  flue  surface  to  utilize 
as  many  of  the  heat  units  from  the  coal  consumed  as  is  possible. 

7.  The  height  of  the  boiler  should  not  be  so  great  as  to  inter- 
fere with  a  giving  of  the  proper  pitch  to  the  piping. 

8.  If  a  steam  boiler,  see  that  there  is  provision  for  a  sufficient 
depth  of  water  above  the  crown  sheet,  or  prime  heating  surfaces, 
to  allow  the  bubbles  or  globules  of  steam  passing  upward  through 
the  water  to  liberate  without  commotion.      This   means  a  steady 
water  line  in  the  boiler. 

9.  There  should  be  a  positive  circulation  of  the  water  through 
all  parts  of  the  boiler. 

10.  Select  a  boiler  full  large  for  the  work,  in  order  to  avoid 
straining  the  boiler   or   wasting   fuel  by   forcing.      The  greatest 
economy  in  the  consumption  of  fuel  is  attained  when  the  fire  burns 
freely  and  evenly  under  normal  conditions  of  draught. 

The  ratings  of  house-heating  boilers  have,  as  a  rule,  been 
worked  out  from  actual  use  and  experience  and  they  may  generally 
be  safely  accepted  by  the  steam  fitter  or  house  owner. 


CHAPTER    IV 

Boiler  Surfaces  and  Settings 

THE  heating  surfaces  in  all  boilers,  whether « cast  or  wrought 
iron,  are  of  two  kinds,  namely,  direct  surface  and  flue  surface. 
Direct  surface  is  that  immediately  above  and  surrounding  the  fire, 
or  those  parts  of  a  boiler  against  which  the  light  from  the  incan- 
descent fuel  shines.  Flue  surface  is  that  which  receives  the  heat 
from  the  burning  gases  while  traversing  from  the  combustion  cham- 
ber to  the  smoke  outlet  of  the  boiler. 

Direct  surface  is  more  effective  than  flue  surface,  the  propor- 
tion being  about  three  to  one.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the 
boiler  presenting  the  most  direct  surface  to  the  action  of  the  fire 
would  be  the  most  effective.  This  is  true  only  in  a  measure,  as 
a  boiler  may  have  a  large  amount  of  direct  surface  and  yet  have 
so  little  flue  surface,  or  distance  of  fire  travel,  that  the  heat  from 
the  gases  of  combustion  is  not  thoroughly  extracted  before  pass- 
ing out  into  the  chimney,  and  a  large  number  of  heat  units  from 
the  fuel  consumed  are  therefore  wasted. 

While  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  large  proportion  of  direct  heat- 
ing surface,  there  must  be  sufficient  flue  surface,  or  distance  of 
fire  travel,  to  consume  the  gases  and  render  the  direct  surface 
effective.  It  is  also  desirable  that  the  heating  surface  should  be 
broken  up  in  such  shape  that  the  heat  from  the  fire  and  the  hot 
gases  should  impinge  at  right  angles  against  it  and  extract  as 
much  of  the  available  heat  as  is.  possible. 

In  the  manufacture  of  some  of  the  earlier  types  of  sectional 
boilers,  the  builders  were  imbued  with  the  idea  that  the  length  of 
a  boiler  or  size  of  it  might  be  increased  indefinitely  by  adding  more 
sections,  each  having  the  same  area  or  size  of  flues.  Manifestly 
this  is  wrong,  and  most  manufacturers  have  come  to  understand 
that  if  a  certain  area  of  flue  opening  through  sections  is  right  for 

a  five-section  heater,  this  same  area  is  too  small  for  a  heater  of 

40 


BOILER    SURFACES    AND    SETTINGS  41 

ten  sections,  and  the  flue  surfaces  are  now  increased  by  making 
the  heater  in  several  widths.  The  proportion  of  direct  and  flue 
surfaces  in  any  heater  depends  entirely  upon  the  character  of  its 
construction. 

Grate  Surface 

In  all  house-heating  boilers  there  should  be  a  low  rate  of  com- 
bustion, and  the  grate  surface  should  be  so  proportioned  with  the 
heating  surface  that  this  may  be  accomplished.  The  consumption 
of  fuel  should  not  exceed  six  or  eight  pounds  of  coal  per  square 
foot  per  hour,  depending  upon  the  quality  of  the  fuel  and  the 
management  of  the  apparatus. 

Tests  are  usually  made  by  evaporation  and  under  perfect  con- 
ditions of  draught,  a  pound  of  the  best  anthracite  coal  will  evapo- 
rate from  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds  of  water.  However,  we  never 
reach  perfect  conditions  of  draught  in  a  heating  apparatus,  as  there 
is  always  a  loss  of  from  twenty-five  to  forty  per  cent  of  the  heat 
up  the  chimney  flue.  Some  manufacturers  of  boilers  claim  a  rate 
of  evaporation  of  ten  pounds  of  water  per  pound  of  fuel.  The 
average  is  much  less,  and  a  low-pressure  boiler  that  will  evaporate 
eight  pounds  of  water  per  pound  of  fuel  is  considered  as  economical. 

In  the  locomotive  fire-box  type  of  heating  boiler,  the  ratio  of 
grate  to  steam  radiation  capacity  (gross)  is  from  1  to  190  in 
the  smaller  sizes,  to  1  to  275  in  the  larger  sizes;  that  is  to  say, 
for  each  square  foot  of  grate,  190  to  275  sq.  ft.  of  steam  radiation 
capacity  is  figured. 

In  cast-iron  sectional  boilers,  the  ratio  of  grate  surface  and 
steam  radiation  capacity  is  from  1  to  175,  to  1  to  220,  while  in 
round  cast-iron  heaters,  the  rating  is  quite  a  little  less,  the  ratio 
being  from  1  to  160,  up  to  1  to  180. 

Where  tubular  boilers  are  used  for  heating,  it  is  customary  to 
allow  one  hundred  feet  of  direct  cast-iron  radiation  per  horse  power, 
considering  15  sq.  ft.  of  heating  surface  as  one  horse  power. 

Water  Surface 

The  water  surface  necessary  in  a  low-pressure  boiler  depends 
largely  upon  the  construction  of  the  same.  A  boiler  so  con- 
structed as  to  have  a  perfect  circulation  in  all  of  its  parts,  re- 


42       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

quires  less  water  than  a  boiler  in  which  this  circulation  is  not 
maintained.  It  is  necessary  to  have  sufficient  water  surface  in 
order  that  the  steam  bubbles  may  liberate  easily  without  disturb- 
ing the  water  line,  or  carrying  water  into  the  steam  supply  pipes 
of  the  heating  system.  A  boiler  constructed  so  that  all  of  the 
water  ways  are  small  and  the  water  consequently  divided  into  small 
parts,  should  steam  quicker  and  prove  more  economical  than  a 
boiler  where  the  water  is  held  in  large  bodies.  The  water  divided 
into  smaller  parts  is  more  easily  and  quickly  heated  and  a  circu- 
lation of  the  water  within  the  boiler  more  readily  established. 

Boiler  Setting 

The  large  majority  of  boilers  now  used  for  heating  have  what 
is  known  as  a  "  portable  setting."  The  early  types  of  heating 
boilers  were  bricked  in.  At  the  present  time,  aside  from  the  tubular 
or  fire-box  boilers,  but  very  few  of  the  modern  boilers  are  bricked. 
Many  require  no  covering  whatever,  although  it  is  customary  to 
cover  some  of  the  heaters  with  a  plastic  covering  of  magnesia  and 
asbestos,  which,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  applied  in  the  form  of 
plaster  and  is  dried  or  baked  on  the  surfaces  to  be  covered.  This 
covering  is  usually  put  on  about  2"  thick  and  is  sufficient  to  pre- 
vent the  radiation  of  heat  in  the  cellar  or  boiler  room,  and  also 
adds  to  the  efficiency  and  appearance  of  the  boiler.  The  castings 
should  be  heated  before  applying  the  covering. 

Many  boilers  have  a  somewhat  low  or  shallow  base  or  ash  pit, 
and  when  using  a  boiler  of  this  nature,  and  the  height  of  boiler 
cellar  will  allow,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  set  it  on  a  raised  foundation 
of  brick  two  or  three  courses  in  height,  leaving  the  center  hollow. 
This  provides  a  good,  deep  ash  pit,  reducing  the  probability  of 
burning  out  the  grate,  which  frequently  happens  when  the  ashes  are 
packed  underneath  it. 

Fig.  27  shows  the  manner  of  bricking  a  locomotive  fire-box 
boiler,  when  it  is  desired  to  take  the  smoke  out  at  the  front  end, 
and  Fig.  28  shows  the  method  of  bricking  the  same  boiler,  where 
the  smoke  is  taken  out  at  the  back  end.  As  in  this  boiler  the  fire 
or  flame  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  brickwork,  no  fire  brick 
are  necessary. 


BOILER    SURFACES    AND    SETTINGS 


44       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


BOILER    SURFACES    AND    SETTINGS 


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46       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

Fig.  29  shows  the  brick  setting  plan  for  horizontal  tubular 
boilers  with  full-arch  front,  and  Fig.  30  the  same  plan  for  hori- 


zontal  tubular  boilers  with  half-arch  front.     With   a  setting   of 
this  character  it  is  necessary  to  use  fire  brick.   On  the  illustrations 


SURFACES  AND  SETTINGS 


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48       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

given,  the  fire  brick  are  indicated  by  the  heavy  shading  of  the 
drawing.     The  tables  given,  accompanying  each  illustration,  give 


measurements,  as  indicated  by  the  letters  on  the  drawing  and  the 
number  of  common  and  fire  brick  necessary  for  each  size  of  boiler 
that  is  given. 


BOILER    SURFACES    AND    SETTINGS 


49 


AH  steam  boilers  used  for  heating  should  be  provided  with 
the  regulation  set  of  trimmings.  By  "  regulation  set  "  we  mean 
safety  valve,  steam  gauge,  automatic  damper  regulator,  water 
column  and  glass,  blow-off  or  draw-off  cock,  and  a  complete  set 
of  cleaning  and  firing  tools,  and  of  these  trimmings  and  tools  we 
wish  to  speak  in  detail. 

The  Safety  Valve 

The  safety  valve  on  a  steam  boiler  should  be  of  a  kind  not  liable 
to  stick  or  become  inoperative,  as  accidents  are  frequently  the 
result  of  this  occurrence. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  safety  valves  in  general  use,  the 
weighted  valve,  as  shown  by  Fig.  31,  the  lever  valve,  shown  by 


FIG.  32. — Lever  safety  valve. 


FIG.  31.— Weighted 
safety  valve. 


FIG.  33. — Spring 
safety  valve. 


Fig.  3£,  and  the  spring  valve,  often  called  the  "  pop  safety  valve," 
shown  by  Fig.  33. 

The  weighted  safety  valve  is  a  simple  ground  seat  valve,  the 
disc  of  which  is  held  against  the  seat  by  a  weight  usually  in  the 
form  of  a  cast-iron  ball  placed  or  screwed  on  the  top  of  the  stem. 
This  ball  varies  in  weight,  according  to  the  size  of  the  valve. 

The  lever  safety  valve  shown  is  a  type  of  valve  in  general  use 
not  only  on  steam  boilers,  but  on  other  work  as  well,  and  this  is 
an  excellent  form  of  safety  valve.  It  may  be  regulated  to  operate 
at  different  pressures  by  adjusting  the  weight  or  hanging  it  in 
different  positions  on  the  lever  until  sufficient  pressure  has  accumu- 
lated to  operate  it. 


50       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

This  type  of  valve,  as  well  as  the  others  mentioned,  is  used  ex- 
tensively on  low-pressure  as  well  as  high-pressure  boilers. 

The  safety  valve  should  never  be  weighted  down  with  a  wreight 
heavier  than  that  accompanying  the  valve.  We  have  seen  the  levers 
of  safety  valves  held  down  by  a  block  or  board  wedged  between 
the  lever  and  a  joist  of  the  floor  above — a  very  careless  practice 
and  one  liable  to  cause  serious  damage  to  person  or  property.  We, 
therefore,  favor  the  spring,  or  "  pop,"  valve,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  it  cannot  be  easily  tampered  with.  The  attendant  of  a  steam 
boiler  should  frequently  try  the  safety  valve  by  releasing  it,  in 
order  that  he  may  know  that  it  is  in  good  condition. 

The  Steam  Gauge 

Low-pressure  steam  gauges,  as  used  with  boilers  for  heating, 
are  made  to  register  about  thirty  pounds.  Fig.  34  illustrates  a 
gauge  of  this  character  and  while  it  is  customary  to  provide  for 
all  boilers,  high  or  low  pressure,  a  gauge  registering  double  the 
working  pressure,  it  is  very  seldom  that  the  pressure  exceeds  ten 
pounds  on  a  boiler  used  for  low-pressure  heating. 

A  stopcock  should  always  be  provided  with  the  gauge  in  case 
it  is  found  necessary  to  remove  it  for  cleaning  or  adjustment.  In 
connecting  the  gauge,  a  siphon  should  be  used  to  prevent  dry 
steam  from  entering  the  gauge.  It  is  good  practice  to  fill  the  loop 
of  this  siphon  with  water  before  screwing  on  the  gauge. 

The  Automatic  Damper  Regulator 

All  steam  boilers,  high  or  low  pressure,  should  be  provided  with 
an  automatic  damper  regulator.  Without  this  regulation  it  would 
be  impossible  to  control  the  boiler  except  by  constant  watching 
and  wrork  of  the  attendant  in  charge  of  the  boiler. 

Automatic  damper  regulators  for  low-pressure  boilers  are  very 
simple  affairs,  the  regulators  for  high  pressure  being  more  com- 
plicated. There  are  a  variety  of  high-pressure  regulators  on  the 
market,  which  our  space  will  not  permit  of  illustrating  or  describ- 
ing. It  is  of  the  low-pressure  regulator  that  we  desire  more  par- 
ticularly to  speak.  All  of  them  are  alike  in  principle  and  very 
similar  in  design,  to  that  shown  by  Fig.  35.  Two  castings  shaped 


BOILER    SURFACES    AND    SETTINGS  51 

almost  exactly  like  the  old-fashioned  soup  plate  form  the  bowl  of 
the  regulator,  the  upper  one  inverted  and  bolted  face  to  face  with 
the  lower,  with  the  rubber  diaphragm  between,  the  lower  casting 
of  the  bowl  being  tapped  for  a  connection  with  the  boiler.  The 
upper  casting  of  the  bowl  has  a  round  orifice  or  opening  in  the 
center,  through  which  a  small  plunger  protrudes,  the  lower  side 
of  the  plunger  resting  on  the  rubber  diaphragm.  As  the  pressure 
increases  under  the  rubber  diaphragm,  it  is  expanded,  forcing  the 
plunger  upward.  To  the  top  of  the  plunger  is  bolted  a  wrought- 
iron  rod  or  lever,  at  point  marked  "  A  "  on  the  illustration.  At 
point  marked  "  B  "  there  are  two  lips  which  extend  upward  from 
the  outer  edge  of  the  upper  bowl  casting,  these  lips  forming  the 
fulcrum,  the  lever  being  bolted  between  the  lips  at  this  point.  The 


FIG.  35. — Low-pressure  damper 
regulator. 


FIG.  34. — Low-pressure  steam  gauge. 


regulator  is  set  so  that  the  fulcrum  is  on  the  side  toward  the  front 
of  the  boiler.  A  weight,  marked  "  C,"  is  placed  on  the  lever  at 
a  point  back  of  the  plunger.  This  weight  is  movable  and  by 
placing  it  on  the  lever  farther  from  or  nearer  to  the  plunger,  a 
greater  or  lesser  pressure  is  required  to  operate  the  lever. 

On  some  regulators  there  is  a  chain  extending  from  the  front 
end  of  the  lever  only,  this  chain  connecting  with  the  draught  door 
of  the  boiler.  On  most  regulators,  however,  there  are  two  chains, 
one  from  either  end  of  the  rod.  The  front  chain  connects  with 
the  draught  door  and  the  rear  chain  connects  with  the  cold-air 
check  door  at  the  rear  of  the  boiler,  the  chains  being  so  adjusted 
that  when  the  lever  moves  to  close  the  draught  door,  it  will  also 
open  the  cold-air  check. 


52       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

The  steam  should  never  come  in  contact  with  the  rubber  dia- 
phragm, and  for  this  reason  a  water  bottle  or  trap  is  used  in 
connecting  the  regulator  to  the  boiler. 


FIG.  36. — Showing  connection  and 
action  of  regulator. 


FIG.  37. — Showing  connection  and 
action  of  regulator. 


Many  fitters  of  limited  experience  become  confused  in  adjust- 
ing the  chains  to  draught  and  check  doors,  and  in  order  to  make 
this  plain,  we  illustrate  as  in  Figs.  36,  37  and  38,  showing  the 
three  positions  of  the  regulator  in  action.  "  A  "  represents  the 


FIG.  38. — Showing  connection  and  action  of  regulator. 

draught  door  being  a  part  of  the  base  or  ash-pit  front ;  "  B  "  the 
cold-air  check,  a  door  on  the  smoke  connection  at  rear  of  boiler; 
"  C  "  the  trap  used  in  connecting  regulator  to  boiler ;  "  D  "  the 


BOILER    SURFACES    AND    SETTINGS  53 

diaphragm  castings  with  rubber  between ;  "  E  "  the  weight,  or 
ball,  on  lever ;  "  F  "  the  smoke  pipe,  and  "  G  "  the  smoke  con- 
nection to  boiler. 

Fig.  36  shows  the  adjustment  of  chains  when  draught  is  on  the 
boiler.  Note  that  the  front  chain  is  taut,  the  draught  door  being 
held  open.  The  rear  chain  is  slack,  the  check  door  being  shut. 
In  this  position  the  doors  remain  until  sufficient  pressure  is  raised 
to  operate  regulator,  when  the  plunger  is  slowly  raised,  the  lever 
allowing  draught  door  "  A  "  to  gradually  close. 

Fig.  37  shows  the  operation  of  the  chains  when  draught  door 
is  closed.  Note  that  the  rear  chain  is  yet  slack,  although  there 
is  no  draught  on  the  boiler.  If  the  pressure  of  the  boiler  is  not 
held  in  check  by  the  closing  of  the  draught  door,  the  plunger  in 
the  diaphragm  will  continue  to  rise  until,  as  shown  by  Fig.  38, 
the  rear  chain  becomes  taut  and  opens  the  check  draught  door  at 
the  rear  of  boiler,  thus  effectually  checking  the  fire.  The  weight 
on  the  lever  may  be  set  in  such  a  manner  that  both  draught  and 
check  doors  remain  closed. 

The  Water  Column  and  Gauge  Glass 

Fig.  39  shows  a  standard  size  of  water  column,  with  gauge 
cocks  and  water  gauge.  The  try  cocks,  of  which  there  are  three, 
are  not  shown  on  the  drawing.  These  try  cocks  are  screwed  into 
the  water  column  at  points  marked  "  A  "  on  the  drawing.  While 
it  is  desirable  to  use  three  try  cocks,  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary, 
and  many  manufacturers  of  heating  boilers  make  use  of  but  two. 
The  water  column  should  be  at  least  two  and  one  half  inches 
(21/2")  in  diameter  and  fourteen  (14")  or  fifteen  (15")  inches  in 
length. 

On  the  illustration,  "  B  "  is  the  gauge  glass,  "  C  "  the  guard 
rods,  "  D  "  the  drip  cock,  which  should  be  placed  at  the  bottom 
of  all  water  gauges,  and  "  E  "  the  packing  or  rubber  washer  used 
to  make  tight  joints  around  the  glass. 

The  Blow-Off  Cock 

Fig.  40,  the  blow  off  or  drain  cock,  often  called,  also,  sediment 
cock,  is  a  necessary  trimming  to  every  boiler.  At  the  lowest  part 
of  the  boiler,  there  should  be  an  opening  to  which  a  pipe  con- 


54       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


nection  can  be  made  to  drain  the  boiler  or  heating  system.  This 
connection  must  have  a  valve,  and  we  have  seen  all  sorts  of  valves 
used  for  this  purpose.  A  drain  cock,  known  also  as  a  plug  cock, 
should  always  be  used,  as  it  has  a  straight  opening  through  which 


FIG.  40 .—Steam  or  "blow-off"  cock. 


FIG.  39.  —  Water  column  and  gauge. 

the  sediment  or  scale  from  the  boiler  can  pass  without  choking. 
Many  of  the  smaller  sizes  of  boilers  are  tapped  for  a  %"  blow  off; 
"  opening  would  be  better. 


or 


Firing  Tools  and  Brushes 

All  boilers  should  be  provided  with  firing  tools,  consisting  of 
ash  hoe,  poker  and  slice  bar,  and  with  brushes  for  cleaning  the 
heating  surfaces  and  flues,  in  order  that  the  attendant  may  properly 
fire  and  clean  the  boiler.  Nearly  all  makers  of  low-pressure  boilers 
furnish  firing  tools,  as  well  as  specially  designed  brushes. 

Fusible  Plug 

When  we  take  into  consideration  the  thousands  of  boilers  in 
use  for  heating  purposes  and  the  fact  that  but  very  few  explosions 
occur,  it  would  seem  that  all  necessary  precautions  had  been  taken 
when  the  boiler  is  provided  with  a  complete  set  of  trimmings.  How- 


BOILER    SURFACES    AND    SETTINGS  55 

ever  the  Boiler  Inspection  Bureaus  of  some  states,  and  some  in- 
surance companies,  demand  that  a  fusible  plug  be  placed  on  all 
heating  boilers. 

This  consists  of  a  brass  plug,  having  usually  a  hexagon  head, 
through  the  center  of  which  there  is  an  opening  or  core.  This 
core  is  filled  with  Banca  Tin,  a  metal  which  melts  at  about  430 
degrees  Fahr.  The  boiler  is  tapped  at  a  point  below  what  might 
be  termed  the  low-water  line,  and  the  fusible  plug  inserted.  Should 
the  water  in  the  boiler  get  below  the  plug,  the  heat  from  the  hot 
iron  will  melt  the  tin,  thus  making  an  opening  to  the  atmosphere 
and  giving  relief. 


CHAPTER    V 


The  Chimney  Flue 

THERE  is  no  one  part  of  a  steam  or  hot-water  heating  appara- 
tus which  contributes  so  largely  to  its  success  or  failure  as  the 
chimney  to  which  the  boiler  or  heater  is  connected. 

The  chimney  is  comparatively  a  modern  invention.  It  is  said 
that  none  of  the  old  Roman  ruins,  nor  the  restored  buildings  in 
Herculaneum  or  Pompeii  have  chimneys ;  the  chimney  of  that  period 
consisted  of  a  hole  in  the  roof.  The  modern  chimney  was  first 
used  in  the  fourteenth  century. 

At  the  time  steam  and  hot  water  were  first  used  for  heating 


PLASTERED  BRICK, 


FIG.  41. — Round  and  square  chimney  flues. 

purposes  in  this  country  but  very  little  attention  was  given  to 
the  chimney,  with  the  result  that  many  of  the  heating  plants  then 
installed  failed  to  work  satisfactorily.  Experience  has  taught  us 
several  facts  in  the  building  and  use  of  chimneys : 

First : — A  chimney  used  for  a  low-pressure  steam  or  a  hot- 
water  heating  apparatus  should  have  no  other  opening  than  that 
used  for  the  heating  apparatus. 

Second : — The  draught  in  a  chimney  is  spiral ;  therefore, 
round  chimneys,  or  those  as  nearly  square  as  possible,  are  most 

56 


THE    CHIMNEY    FLUE 


effective.  A  round  chimney  12"  in  diameter,  having  an  area  of 
approximately  113  sq.  in.,  is  as  effective  as  a  chimney  12"  X  12" 
having  an  area  of  144  sq.  in.  See  Fig.  41. 


POOR  DRAFT  . 

FIG.  42. — Proper  and  improper  construction  of  chimneys. 

Third : — Adding  height  to  a  chimney  will  increase  the  velocity 
of  the  draught  and  add  to  the  fuel  consumption.  As  we  desire  a 
low  rate  of  combustion  in  a  low-pressure  boiler  or  hot-water  heater, 
greater  area  and  less  proportionate  height  of  the  flue  is  desirable. 


FIG.  43. — Tile-lined  chimney  flue. 

Fourth : — The  height  of  a  chimney  should  be  great  enough  to 
preclude  the  possibility  of  interference  with  the  draught  by  sur- 


58       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

rounding  buildings,  trees,  or  the  roof  of  the  building  of  which 
the  chimney  forms  a  part.  Fig.  42  illustrates  the  character  of 
this  interference. 

Fifth : — The  chimney  should  be  built  straight  upward  without 
any  offsets,  which  cause  friction  and  interfere  with  the  draught ; 
and  the  inside  lining  should  be  as  smooth  as  possible,  a  tile-lined 
flue  being  superior  to  all  others.  See  Fig.  43. 


Sizes  of  Chimneys 

The  following  table  we  give  as  the  result  of  practical  expe- 
rience with  chimneys  on  heating  work  and  may  be  safely  accepted 

TABLE  IV 


Square  or 

Cubic  Feet. 
Contents  of  Building. 

Sq.  Ft. 
Direct 
Steam  Radn. 

Sq.  Ft. 
Hot-Water 
Radn. 

Tile  or  Iron 
—  Inside. 
Inches. 

Rectangu- 
lar—Tile 
or  Brick. 
Inches. 

10,000-  20,000 

250  to     450 

300  to     800 

8 

8X  8 

20,000-  45,000 

450  to     700 

800  to  1,200 

10 

8X12 

45,000-  75,000 

700  to  1,200 

1,200  to  2,200 

12 

12X12 

75,000-140,000 

1,200  to  2,400 

2,200  to  3,600 

14 

12X16 

140,000-200,000 

2,400  to  3,500 

3,600  to  5,200 

16 

16X16 

200,000-350,000 

3,500  to  5,000 

5,200  to  8,000 

18 

16X20 

It  will  interest  our  readers  to  know  what  other  authorities  say 
regarding  chimney  sizes,  and  we  shall  therefore  quote  from  some 
of  them. 

Lawler  in  his  work  on  steam  and  hot-water  heating  gives  a 
graphic  diagram  (see  Fig.  44)  which  gives  the  proportion  of 
grate  surface,  heating  surface  and  chimney  area,  and  he  says : 
"  It  will  be  noticed  that  one  square  foot  of  grate  surface  will  sup- 
ply 36  sq.  ft.  of  boiler  surface ;  and  this  amount  of  grate  arid 
boiler  surface  will  carry  196  sq.  ft.  of  direct  radiating  surface 
for  heating  purposes.  The  area  of  the  chimney  must  be  taken  into 
consideration  and  for  this  amount  of  grate  and  boiler  surface, 
we  allow  49  sq.  in.  For  low-pressure  gravity  steam-heating  plants, 
carrying  over  1,000  sq.  ft.  of  radiation,  the  size  of  chimney  may 
be  reduced  somewhat  less  in  proportion  to  that  shown." 

Jones,  an  English  authority,  says :  "  For  steam  boilers  where 


THE    CHIMNEY    FLUE 


59 


a  keen  or  rapid  draught  is  required,  it  is  necessary  to  have  lofty 
chimneys,  but  for  hot-water  boilers  they  are  not  often  available, 
low  chimneys  being  generally  sufficient.  Where  practicable  the 
height  of  chimney  should  be  twenty-five  per  cent  to  fifty  per  cent 
greater  than  the  total  length  of  horizontal  flues." 


n 


196  8Q.  FEET 


GRATE  SURFACE 


BOILER  SURFACE 


CHIMNEr  SURFACE 


DIRECT  STEAM  RADIATING  SURFACE 

FIG.  44. — Diagram  of  flue  capacity. 

(The  author  refers  to  length  of  fire  travel.)  "The  total 
length  (horizontal)  of  flues  should  not  in  any  case  exceed  the 
height  of  the  chimney." 

Baldwin  says :  "  The  chimney  must  be  capable  of  passing  suffi- 
cient air  for  the  greatest  consumption  of  fuel  ever  likely  to  be  used 
in  the  apparatus.  Less  air  will  not  do.  More  than  is  needed  does 
no  harm,  for  it  is  within  the  power  of  the  operator  or  the  auto- 
matic draught  regulator  to  diminish  the  quantity  of  air." 

We  would  like  to  add  to  the  above  by  saying  that  a  chimney 
is  only  as  large  as  its  smallest  area,  and  if  at  any  point  in  its  con- 
struction, for  no  matter  now  short  a  distance,  the  area  is  reduced 
for  any  cause  whatsoever,  the  area  of  the  entire  flue  must  be  figured 
according  to  its  size  at  the  point  of  reduction. 

Elements  of  a  Good  Flue 

The  flue  should  be  properly  proportioned  according  to  the  size 
of  heater  or  amount  of  radiating  surface  used. 

It  should  have  no  obstructions,  and  in  height  should  extend 


60       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

well  above  the  roof  and  higher  than  surrounding  buildings,  trees,, 
etc. 

There  should  be  only  one  smoke-pipe  hole,  and  that  used  to 
connect  with  boiler. 

The  area  of  the  flue  should  be  maintained  full  size  from  bot- 
tom to  top  without  offsets. 

A  flue  8"  X  8"  is  the  smallest  that  should  be  provided  for  a 
heating,  apparatus.  Velocity  sufficient  to  carry  burning  paper 
up  the  flue  does  not  indicate  a  perfect  chimney.  See  that  area 
is  provided  as  well  as  velocity  (meaning  height). 

If  flue  opening  extends  below  the  smoke-pipe  entrance,  fill  it  up 
with  dirt,  broken  brick  or  other  material  at  hand,  to  a  point  level 
with  the  bottom  of  smoke-pipe  hole.  If  this  is  neglected,  an  air 
pocket  will  be  formed,  causing  down  draught  in  the  chimney. 

Take  no  chances  on  a  chimney  until  the  above  conditions  are 
fulfilled. 

There  are  some  few  facts  regarding  chimney  construction  that 
are  worthy  of  note.  We  have  particular  reference  to  the  materials 
used  in  their  erection  and  to  the  location  of  the  chimneys.  In  the 
observance  of  various  chimneys  note  that  at  the  top,  frequently 
for  a  distance  of  from  four  to  five  feet,  the  bricks  have  become 
loosened  and  seem  about  ready  to  fall.  The  reason  for  this  is  that 
such  bricks  were  laid  with  lime  mortar,  and  the  action  of  the  sul- 
phuric acid  on  the  lime  decomposes  it,  thus  allowing  the  sand  to 
loosen.  Through  the  action  of  the  wind  and  weather  and  also 
the  settling  of  the  bricks  they  blow  or  fall  out,  leaving  cracks 
or  openings  in  the  brickwork  of  the  chimney. 

Brick  chimneys  laid  with  cement  are  better,  as  the  sulphuric 
acid  will  not  injuriously  affect  the  cement. 

Unlined  chimneys  should  be  plastered  smooth  on  the  inside  in 
order  to  reduce  the  friction  as  much  as  possible  and  thereby  in- 
crease the  velocity  of  the  draught. 

It  is  a  very  good  plan  to  build  the  chimney  up  through  the 
center  of  the  house.  The  warmer  the  air  surrounding  the  chim- 
ney, the  less  condensation  of  the  smoke  and  gases  and  the  greater 
the  efficiency  of  the  flue. 

The  foundation  for  the  chimney  should  be  adequate  to  support 
the  weight  upon  it  without  settling.  Cracked  walls,  loose  chim- 


THE    CHIMNEY    FLUE 


61 


neys  and  the  like  can  usually  be  traced  to  a  weak  foundation, 
which  is  also  frequently  the  cause  of  disastrous  fires.  With  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  exerted  against  the  ascending  column 
of  smoke  and  gases,  the  smallest  crack  or  opening  in  the  walls 
of  the  chimney  will  prove  troublesome  and  dangerous. 

Masons  and  contractors  give  too  little  attention  to  chimney 
building,  with  the  result  that  many  chimneys  are  improperly  and 
loosely  built,  of  too  small  area  or  poor  design.  In  order  to  justly 
protect  themselves  from  the  unsatisfactory  results  arising  from 
such  methods  of  chimney  erection,  many  heating  contractors  state 
clearly  in  their  specifications  that  the  owner  must  furnish  a  good 
and  sufficient  flue,  and  that  the  heating  contractor  will  not  be  re- 
sponsible for  failure  of  the  apparatus  due  to  poor  draught. 

Heights  of  Chimneys 

The  following  table  of  heights  and  area  will  be  found  to  be 
substantially  correct.  One  hundred  square  feet  of  radiation  may  be 
allowed  for  each  H.  P.  given  in  the  table. 

TABLE  V 


Square  Chimney. 
Side  of  Square. 

Round  Chimney. 
Diam.  in  Inches. 

Area 
in  Square  Feet. 

Effective  Area 
in  Square  Feet. 

Height  of  Chimnej's  in  Feet. 
50       60       70     80       90      100      110       125        150       175 

Commercial  Horse  Power  of  Boilers. 

16X16 
19X19 

22X22 
24X24 
27X27 
30X30 
32X32 
35X35 
38X38 
43X43 
48X48 
54X54 
59X59 
64X64 
70X70 
75X75 
80X80 
86X86 

18 
21 
24 
27 
30 
33 
36 
39 
42 
48 
54 
60 
66 
72 
78 
84 
90 
96 

1.77 
2.41 

3.14 
3.98 
4.91 
5.94 
7.07 
8.30 
9.62 
12.57 
15.90 
19.64 
23.76 
28.27 
33.18 
38.48 
44.18 
50.27 

.97 
1.47 
2.08 
2.78 
3.58 
4.48 
5.47 
6.57 
7.76 
10.44 
13.51 
16.98 
20.83 
25.08 
29.73 
34.76 
40.19 
46.01 

23 
35 
49 
65 

84 

25 

38 
54 
72 
92 
115 
141 

27 
41 
58 
78 
100 
125 
152 
183 
216 

62 

83 
107 
133 
163 
196 
231 

an 

113 
141 
173 
208 
245 
330 
427 
536 

183 
219 
258 
348 
448 
565 
694 
835 

271 
365 

472 
593 
728 
876 
1,038 
1,214 

.... 

389 
503 
632 
776 
934 
1,107 
1,294 
1,496 

551 

692 
849 
1,023 
1,212 
1,418 
1,639 
1,876 

748 
918 
1,105 
1,300 
1,500 
1,800 
2,000 

62       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

Attention  is  called  to  the  table  "  Capacities  of  Stacks  "  given 
in  the  last  chapter  of  this  book. 

The  height  of  the  average  house  or  other  building  is  usually 
sufficient  for  a  chimney  of  ordinary  area.  However,  for  larger 
work  it  is  well  that  the  height,  area,  etc.,  of  the  chimney  be  care- 
fully proportioned  in  order  that  the  best  results  may  be  obtained 
from  the  heating  apparatus  and  the  most  economical  service  from 
the  amount  of  fuel  consumed. 


CHAPTER    VI 


PIPE   AND   FITTINGS 

Pipe 

WROUGHT-IRON  tubes  of  the  character  we  to-day  call  pipe 
were  first  made  in  England  and  later  (about  the  year  1834)  were 
originally  manufactured  in  this  country  by  the  firm  of  Morris, 
Tasker  &  Morris  at  Philadelphia,  who  afterwards  built  a  tube 
mill  known  as  the  Pascal  Iron  Works.  In  1849  a  tube  plant  was 
erected  at  Maiden,  Mass.,  known  as  the  Wanalancet  Iron  &  Tube 
Works,  the  firm  of  Walworth  &  Nason,  of  Boston,  being  the  prin- 
cipal owners  of  this  Company.  The  manufacture  of  pipe  has  now 
come  to  be  a  very  important  part  of  the  iron  and  steel  industry 
of  this  country. 

TABLE  VI 

STANDARD  WROUGHT  IRON  PIPE 


Internal 
Diameter. 
Inches. 

'I'hickness. 

02 

~  »i  — 

.S"5^ 
S'SPt, 

&* 

MH 

•sis 

& 

*c  -'-'•« 

J=  ~  MH=H 
tgl'l 

3**3 

5< 

^|s 

03 

Weight  of 
Water  in  1 
Ft.  of  Pipe. 
Pounds. 

li'S* 

e  £  3-3 

^£.5 

«^  cr  u 
coc-3  o 

Sfc'-sS 

MPnSt: 

C  ®O  3 

*.&j» 

"!^fe 

Ys 

.068 

.24 

27 

2513. 

.024 

0.0583 

9.44 

H 

.088 

.42 

18 

1383.3 

.044 

0.1041 

7.075 

% 

.091 

.56 

18 

751.5 

.082 

0.1917 

5.657 

Vo 

.109 

.84 

14 

472  .  4 

.132 

0.3048 

4.547 

M 

.113 

1,13 

14 

270.00 

.25 

0.5333 

3.637 

i 

.134 

1.67 

HH 

160.90 

.006 

.37 

0.8627 

2.903 

1H 

.140 

2.24 

uit 

96.25 

.010 

.647 

1.496 

2.301 

1^ 

.145 

2.68 

iVA 

70.66 

.014 

.881 

2.038 

2.010 

2 

.154 

3.61 

HH 

42.91 

.023 

1.45 

3.356 

1.608 

2^ 

.204 

5.74 

8 

30.10 

.032 

2.07 

4.784 

1.328 

3 

.217 

7.54 

8 

19.50 

.051 

3.20 

7.388 

1.091 

&A 

.  226 

9.00 

8 

14.57 

.069 

4.28 

9.887 

0.955 

4 

.237 

10.66 

8 

11.31 

.088 

5.50 

12.730 

0.849 

*M 

.246 

12.49 

8 

9.02 

.111 

6.92 

15.961 

0.764 

5 

.259 

14.50 

8 

7.20 

.138 

8.63 

19.990 

0.687 

6 

.280 

18.76 

8 

4.98 

.197 

12.25 

28.889 

0.577 

7 

.301 

23.27 

8 

3.72 

.270 

16.87 

38.738 

0.501 

8 

.322 

28.18 

8 

2.88 

.340 

21.61 

50.039 

0.443 

9 

.344 

33.70 

8 

2.29 

.440 

27.25 

62.733 

0.397 

10 

.366 

40.00 

8 

1.82 

.550 

34.50 

78.838 

0.355 

63 


64       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

The  pipe  used  for  steam,  water  and  gas  is  graded  in  size 
from  %"  upward  to  the  larger  sizes.  The  internal  diameter  forms 
the  basis  of  the  pipe  size  as  given.  Pipe  at  present  is  manufac- 
tured in  three  thicknesses  or  weights,  known  commercially  as 
"  Standard,"  "  Extra  Strong  "  and  "  Double  Extra  Strong,"  the 
"  Standard  "  weight  being  used  on  all  steam  and  hot-water  heat- 
ing work,  and  all  reference  to  pipe  in  this  book  will  apply  to  the 
standard  weight  unless  stated  otherwise. 

Among  the  tables  published  in  the  last  chapter  of  this  work 
will  be  found  tables  of  sizes,  weights,  etc.,  of  "  Extra  Strong  "  and 
"  Double  Extra  Strong  "  pipe. 

Pipe  up  to  and  including  l1/^"  in  size  is  what  is  known  as 
"  butt  welded,"  I1/-}"  and  larger,  being  "  lap  welded  "  and  is  manu- 
factured in  lengths  varying  from  16  to  20  feet. 

Threading  of  Pipe 

All  pipe  is  now  threaded  uniformly,  the  Briggs'  standard  of 
pipe-thread  sizes  being  used  by  all  manufacturers.  The  taper  is 
an  inclination  of  1  in  32  to  the  axis,  or  %"  to  1  foot. 

Bending  of  Pipe 

Some  years  ago  it  was  a  common  occurrence  to  bend  pipe,  where 
offsets  were  needed,  or  change  of  direction  required.  The  piece 
of  pipe  to  be  bent  was  filled  with  sand  and  both  ends  capped,  the 
sand  acting  as  an  aid  in  preserving  the  form  of  the  pipe,  without 
flattening.  It  was  then  heated  to  a  cherry-red  color  and  bent  to 
the  desired  form.  In  these  later  years  but  very  little  pipe  is  bent, 
the  offsets  or  changes  of  direction  being  made  with  the  use  of  cast- 
iron  or  malleable-iron  fittings. 

The  smaller  sizes  of  pipe,  such  as  are  used  for  water  or  gas 
service,  are  frequently  bent  by  the  plumber  without  heating  and 
without  the  use  of  sand.  When  it  becomes  necessary  to  do  any 
considerable  amount  of  work  of  this  character,  it  is  better  to  use 
bending  blocks  or  bending  forms. 

Expansion  of  Pipe 

In  heating  work  the  expansion  of  pipe,  when  heated,  must  al- 
ways be  taken  into  consideration  and  opportunity  given  the  pipe 


PIPE    AND    FITTINGS 


65 


to  stretch  without  breaking  fittings  or  straining  joints.  To  this 
end  all  mains  should  be  hung  or  supported  by  expansion  hangers 
as  shown  by  Fig.  45.  Pipe  connections,  particularly  on  steam 
work,  should  be  made  by  using  elbows  to  form  a  swing  or  expan- 
sion joint.  We  shall  speak  of  this  more  fully  in  discussing  methods 
of  steam  piping. 

Whenever  pipe  is  run  through  boxing,  tile  or  other  form  of 
conduit,  a  roller  support  (see  Fig.  46)  should  be  used. 


FIG.  45. — Expansion  pipe  hangers. 


FIG.  46. — Roller  support  for  piping. 


degrees  will  expand  about 


Pipe  heated  from  30  degrees  to 
1%"  in  100  feet  of  length. 

The  following  table  gives  the  expansion  of  100  lineal  feet  of 
pipe  heated  to  various  degrees  of  temperature. 


TABLE  VH 
EXPANSION  OF  WROUGHT-!RON  PIPE 


Temperature 
of  the  Air 
When  Pipe 
Is  Fitted. 

Length 
of  Pipe 
When 
Fitted. 

Length  of  Pipe  When  Heated  to  — 

215° 

265° 

297° 

338° 

Ft. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Zero 

100 

100 

1.72 

100 

2.12 

100 

2.31 

100 

2.70 

32° 

100 

100 

1.47 

100 

1.78 

100 

2.12 

100 

2.45 

64° 

100 

100 

1.21 

100 

1.61 

100 

1.87 

100 

2.19 

The  number  of  degrees  pipe  is  heated,  corresponding  approx- 
imately to  steam  pressure,  as  follows: 

215°  =  1  Ib.  pressure. 
265°  =  25  Ibs.  pressure. 
297°  =  50  Ibs.  pressure. 
338°  =  100  Ibs.  pressure. 


66       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

Wrought-iron  or  Steel  Pipe 

Up  to  the  year  1885,  approximately,  all  pipe  was  made  of 
wrought  iron.  At  about  this  time  the  manufacture  of  welded  steel 
pipe  on  a  commercial  basis  was  started.  The  difficulties  experi- 
enced before  in  its  manufacture,  principally  in  welding,  had  been 
overcome  by  improvement,  so  that  it  could  now  be  readily  welded. 
The  first  of  the  steel  pipe  seemed  hard  and  brittle  and  the  steam 
fitter  had  considerable  trouble  in  threading  it.  However,  as  now 
manufactured  it  is  soft  and  tough  in  fiber  and  a  die,  if  blunt,  will 
tear  the  thread.  Consequently  it  is  necessary  that  the  die  be  sharp 
in  threading  steel  pipe. 

In  appearance,  iron  pipe  is  rough  and  has  a  heavy  scale,  while 
steel  pipe  has  a  lighter  scale,  underneath  which  the  surface  is 
smooth.  The  grain  of  steel  pipe  is  fine,  while  that  of  wrought-iron 
pipe  is  coarse.  The  author  of  this  work  is  located  near  the  center 
of  the  iron  and  steel  industry  and  has  endeavored  to  ascertain  the 
difference  in  value  between  steel  and  wrought-iron  pipe  and  our 
investigation  may  be  summed  up  as  follows : 

Steel  pipe  costs  less  to  manufacture  than  wrought-iron  pipe ; 
it  is,  therefore,  cheaper.  With  improved  dies,  threads  may  be 
cut  on  steel  pipe  as  good,  but  not  as  quickly,  as  on  wrought- 
iron  pipe.  When  steel  pipe  is  new  it  has  a  higher  tensile  strength 
than  wrought  iron.  We  are  told  that  after  a  few  years'  use  the 
reverse  is  the  case. 

There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  but  that  wrought-iron  pipe  will  last 
much  longer  than  pipe  made  of  steel,  as  it  is  less  liable  to  cor- 
rode, the  difference  in  longevity,  under  certain  conditions,  more 
than  making  up  for  the  increased  cost. 

To  Ascertain  Whether  Pipe  Is  Made  of  Iron  or  Steel 

The  following  test  is  given  us  by  an  officer  of  an  iron  company : 
"  Cut  off  a  short  piece  of  pipe — file  the  end  smooth  to  oblit- 
erate the  marks  of  the  cutting  tool.  Suspend  the  piece  of  pipe  in 
a  solution  of  nine  parts  of  water,  three  parts  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
one  part  muriatic  acid.  Place  the  water  in  a  porcelain  or  glass 
dish,  adding  the  sulphuric  and  then  the  muriatic  acid.  Suspend 
the  pipe  in  such  a  manner  that  the  end  will  not  touch  the  bottom 


PIPE    AND    FITTINGS 


67 


of  the  dish.  After  an  immersion  of  about  two  hours,  remove  the 
piece  of  pipe  and  wash  off  the  acid.  If  the  pipe  is  steel,  the  end 
will  present  a  bright,  solid,  unbroken  surface;  if  made  of  iron, 


FIG.  47. — Wrought-iron  and  steel  pipe. 

it  will  show  faint  ridges  or  rings,  displaying  the  different  layers 
of  iron  and  streaks  of  cinder,"  as  shown  by  Fig.  47. 

Nipples 

Short  pieces  of  standard  pipe  threaded  at  both  ends  are  called 
"  nipples  "  and  are  known  commercially  as  "  close,"  "  short,"  or 
"  long." 

A  close  nipple  is  one  so  short  that  in  threading  the  ends,  the 
threads  join  at  the  center  of  the  nipple,  and  by  the  use  of  which 
two  fittings  or  valves  may  be  joined  together  close  to  each  other. 
From  this  fact  the  nipple  is  called  "  close." 

The  short  nipple  is  one  showing  a  small  amount  of  bare  pipe 
between  the  threads,  the  length  varying  from  l1/^"  for  %"  to 
y2"  nipples  to  5"  for  nipples  made  from  7"  to  12"  pipe. 


SHOULDER   NIPPLE  CLOSE  NIPPLE 

FIG.  48.— Nipples. 


Long  nipples  run  from  2"  to  61/:/'  in  length,  according  to 
the  size  of  pipe.  Fig.  48  shows  the  two  kinds  of  nipples  and  the 
following  table  gives  lists  of  lengths  and  sizes. 


68       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


TABLE  VIII 

WROUGHT-!RON  NIPPLES 


Close. 


Short. 


3* 

2 


Length  in  Inches. 


3 
3 
3 

3K 


Long. 


Sizes. 


M 

IK 

2  ^ 

3  2 


5 

(i 
7 
8 
0 

10 


Couplings 

Pipe  is  joined  together  by  what  is  known  as  a  coupling — a 
sleeve  of  wrought  iron  tapped  out  or  threaded  right  hand  on  the 
inside.  Pipe  mills  furnish  one  coupling  with  each  full  length  of 
pipe.  They  may  also  be  obtained  tapped  right  and  left  hand, 
if  desired,  although  it  is  customary  when  using  a  right  and  left 
coupling  to  use  one  made  of  malleable  iron.  Reducing  couplings 


WROUGHT  .IRON  COUPLING 


R.  A  L.    MALLEABLE  COUPLING 


FIG.  49. — Couplings. 

are  also  made  of  malleable  iron,  reducing  from  one  pipe  size  to 
another  of  smaller  size.  Fig.  49  shows  the  wrought-iron  right- 
hand  coupling  and  the  malleable  right  and  left  hand  coupling. 


PIPE    AND    FITTINGS 


69 


Fittings 

The  fittings  used  in  connection  with  steam,  gas  or  water  pipe 
are  of  two  general  kinds,  viz. :  those  made  of  cast  iron  and  those 
made  of  malleable  iron.  By  fittings  we  mean  elbows,  tees,  crosses, 
flanges,  bushings,  caps,  plugs,  etc. 

For  heating  work  the  cast-iron  fitting  is  used ;  for  gas  piping, 
the  malleable-iron  fitting,  and  for  domestic  water  supply,  the  gal- 
vanized malleable-iron  fitting.  We  shall  illustrate  and  describe 
only  the  cast-iron  fitting. 

Cast-iron  fittings  are  of  two  kinds,  viz.:  those  having  a  flat 
bead,  and  those  having  a  round  bead, — Fig.  50.  "  Straight  "  fit- 


ELBOW,  ROUND  BEAD 


ELBOW,  FLAT  BEAD 


FIG.  50.— Beaded  fittings. 

tings  are  those  having  all  openings  tapped  for  the  same  size  of 
pipe.  "  Reducing  "  fittings  are  those  tapped  for  different  sizes 
of  pipes.  Fig.  51  shows  a  group  of  flat  beaded  fittings. 

The  terms  "  male  "  and  "  female  "  fittings  are  sometimes  used. 
By  "  male  "  fitting  we  mean  one  with  the  threads  on  the  outside ; 
by  "  female  "  fitting  we  mean  one  with  the  threads  on  the  inside. 

When  reading  or  describing  a  tee  fitting,  the  run  is  named 
first,  the  side  opening  last.  If  the  run  is  tapped  reducing,  the 
larger  tapping  is  read  first.  Thus  a  tee  whose  tappings  are  3" 
X  2"  X  1%"  is  read:  three  by  two  by  one  and  one  half  inch. 

The  top  and  side  outlets  of  a  cross  are  all  of  the  same  size, 
while  the  inlet  may  be  the  same  size  or  larger.  Thus  a  2  X  1  X  1" 
cross  would  indicate  that  the  bottom  or  inlet  was  2"  and  the  top 
and  side  outlets  1"  in  size. 

Branch  Tees 

A  fitting  used  largely  on  coil  work  is  known  as  a  Branch  Tee, 
frequently  (but  erroneously)  called  a  Branch  Header.  Shown  by 
Fig.  52.  All  branch  tees  are  tapped  right  hand  in  the  run  and 


70       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

in  the  branches,  excepting  when  used  in  making  box  coils,  when 
the  branches  are  tapped  left  hand  and  the  back  opening  right 
hand. 


R.<t  U   ELBOW 


FLANGED  UNION 


REDUCING  TEE 


ECCENTRIC  TEE 


ECCENTRIC  TEE 


Y  BRANCH 


RETURN  BEND,   WIDE  PATTERI* 


BACK  OUTLET 


FIG.  51. — Types  of  cast-iron  fittings. 


Cast-Iron  Flanges 

Cast-iron  flanges  are  now  made  according  to  two  uniform  stand- 
ards.    A  joint  committee  of  the  Master  Steam  Fitters  Association 


PIPE    AND    FITTINGS 


71 


and  the  American  Society  of  Heating  Engineers  recommended  a 
standard  for  a  working  pressure  up  to  125  pounds.  This  stand- 
ard has  been  adopted  by  all  manufacturers,  who  also  have  a  stand- 


No.  1.   FOR  CIRCULATION 


NO. 2.    FOR  CIRCULATION 


CLOSED 
OPEN 


INLET    CPEH 

N0.3.   FOR  BOX  COILS 

FIG.  52. — Branch  tees. 


ard  of  their  own  for  pressures  up  to  £50  pounds.     The  following 
gives  all  measurements  for  flanges,  as  used  on  heating  work. 


TABLE  IX 

SCHEDULE  OF  STANDARD  FLANGES 


Size  of  Flange 

Pipe  Size  X 

Diam. 


Diameter 
of  Bolt 
Circle. 


Num- 
ber of 
Bolts. 


Size  of  Bolts, 

Pressure 
Under  80  Lbs. 


Size  of  Bolts, 

Pressure  80 

Lbs.  and  Over. 


Flange 

Thick- 

ness at 

Hub  for 

Iron 

Pipe. 


Flange 
Thick- 

ness 
at  Edge. 


Width 

of 

Flange 
Face. 


2X6 
21^  X  7 
3  X  71 


4     X  9 


5  X10 

6  Xll 


/ 

8 

9  X15  " 

10  X16 

12  X19 

14  X21 

15  X22H 

16  X23Vo 
18  X25  " 
20  X27U 


81^ 


17 


20 

2U/I 
22M 
25 


4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

12 

12 

12 

12 

16 

16 

16 

20 


X2 


i  y%  A  -1/4 
1HX4& 


1 

We 


Do  not  drill  bolt  holes  on  center  line  but  symmetrically  each  side. 


72       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

Measuring  Pipe  and  Fittings 

The  proper  method  of  measuring  pipe  and  fittings  is  by  "  end- 
to-center  "  measure,  or  "  center  to  center,"  the  former  being  used 
in  measuring  a  piece  or  length  of  pipe  with  a  fitting  on  one  end ; 
for  example,  with  an  elbow  on  the  end  of  the  pipe,  measure  from 
end  of  pipe  to  center  of  the  elbow,  or  in  case  of  a  tee,  measure  from 
end  of  pipe  to  center  of  the  side  outlet  of  the  tee. 


h 


FIG.  53. — Measuring  pipe  and  fittings. 


In  measuring  center  to  center  measurements,  Fig.  53  shows 
the  method  employed.  The  illustration  shows  two  elbows,  a  valve, 
a  union  and  a  tee,  with  dotted  lines  indicating  method  of  measure- 
ment. When  ordering  pipe  "  cut  to  sketch  "  this  manner  of  in- 
dicating measurements,  no  matter  how  crude  the  drawing,  will 
guard  against  possible  errors. 


CHAPTER    VII 

Valves 

THE  method  employed  in  blocking  or  stopping  the  flow  of 
steam  or  hot  water  in  the  piping  or  in  the  supply  to  the  radiating 
surfaces  of  a  steam  or  water  warming  apparatus  is  the  placing  of 
a  cock  or  valve  at  some  convenient  point  or  points  on  the  system, 
which  may  be  opened  or  closed  at  will. 

The  early  types  of  cocks  and  valves,  as  used  in  connection  with 
a  heating  apparatus,  were  very  crude  when  compared  with  those 
used  at  the  present  time,  and  there  is  probably  no  part  of  the  heat- 
ing apparatus  which  has  received  closer  attention  in  the  way  of 
improvement  in  manufacture,  utility  and  appearance,  than  the 
steam,  water  and  air  valves. 

The  valves  used  in  shutting  off  or  supplying  steam  or  water 
to  the  radiators  are  customarily  called  Radiator  Valves.  These 
are  of  several  kinds,  and,  as  a  matter  of  convenience  in  connecting 
piping  to  a  radiator,  are  usually  provided  with  a  union  connection. 
As  a  rule,  radiator  valves  are  nickel  plated  all  over,  the  body  of 
the  valve  being  left  rough,  the  other  portion  being  finished  or 
polished. 

Fig.  54t  shows  the  regular  form  of  steam  radiator  valve  with 
union,  and  has  a  ground  seat  and  composition  disk,  the  Jenkins 
Disk  being  the  standard.  Fig.  55  shows  the  regular  form  of  the 
hot-water  radiator  valve.  This  is  known  as  a  quick-opening  valve 
from  the  fact  that  it  is  made  in  such  a  manner  that  a  quarter 
turn  of  the  wheel  will  open  or  close  the  valve.  A  sleeve,  with 
opening  in  the  side,  is  attached  to  the  stem  and  fitted  closely  inside 
the  body  of  the  valve.  To  operate  the  valve  the  opening  in  the 
sleeve  is  turned  in  the  direction  of  the  discharge  opening  of  the 
valve ;  to  close  the  valve  the  opening  in  the  sleeve  is  turned  back 
from  the  discharge  opening  of  the  valve.  In  the  early  days  of 
steam  and  hot-water  heating,  the  valves  used  on  hot-water  radia- 

73 


74       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

tors  were  of  practically  the  same  design  as  those  used  on  steam 
radiators.  A  change  in  the  construction  of  the  hot-water  radiator 
valve  was  found  necessary,  as  with  the  old  type  the  water  within 
the  radiator  ceased  circulating  when  the  valve  was  closed.  This 


FIG.  54. — Steam  radi-    FIG.  55. — Hot-water  radi- 
ator valve  with  union.         ator  valve  with  union. 


FIG.  56. — Union  elbow. 


complete  stoppage  frequently  resulted  in  a  freezing  of  the  water  in 
the  radiating  surface.  To  overcome  this  difficulty  the  sleeve  of 
a  hot-water  radiator  valve  is  now  made  with  a  small  opening 
through  it,  so  that,  though  the  valve  be  closed  tight,  there  is  still 
a  slight  circulation  within  the  radiator,  and  this  effectually  pre- 
vents freezing  of  the  water. 


FIG.  57. — Globe  valve.  FIG.  58. — Angle  valve.  FIG.  59. — Gate  valve. 

Hot-water  radiator  valves  of  other  patterns  are  manufactured 
and  quite  extensively  used. 

As  a  matter  of  appearance  and  also  of  convenience  in  con- 
necting the  return  end  of  a  hot-water  radiator  with  the  piping, 


VALVES 


75 


a  nickel-plated  brass  elbow,  with  union  connection,  is  used.  This 
is  commonly  called  a  Union  Elbow  and  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  56. 

The  principal  valves  used  on  piping  are  the  Globe  Valve,  Fig. 
57,  the  Angle  Valve,  Fig.  58,  and  the  Gate  Valve,  Fig.  59,  and 
there  are  many  varieties  of  each. 

Some  globe  valves  are  made  with  a  solid  metal  disk  and  seat ; 
others  have  a  seat  made  of  soft  metal,  while  some  are  provided 
with  a  composition  disk  of  the  Jenkins  type,  or  similar.  The 
diaphragm  of  a  globe  valve  forms  an  obstruction  in  the  valve,  as 
will  be  noticed  by  referring  to  Fig.  60,  which  illustrates  the  in- 
terior of  the  valve.  Consequently  it  is  well  to  use  this  valve  only 
on  a  vertical  pipe,  unless  so  set  that  the  stem  of  the  valve  is  hori- 
zontal. 

The  angle  valve  is  used  on  the  piping  in  place  of  an  elbow 


c 


J 


c 


FIG.  60. — Interior  of  globe  valve. 


FIG.  61. — Interior  of  gate  valve. 


when  change  of  direction  is  desired  and  it  is  found  convenient  to 
place  the  valve  at  this  point. 

The  gate  valve  (known  also  as  the  straightway  valve)  has 
superseded  the  globe  and  angle  types  of  valves  on  nearly  all  work, 
as  it  has  so  many  important  advantages  in  comparison.  It  should 
always  be  made  use  of  on  hot-water  piping,  owing  to  the  fact  that, 
when  open,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  free  flow  of  water 
through  the  valve.  See  illustration,  Fig.  61. 

Extra  large  globe  and  gate  valves  are  frequently  provided  with 
a  yoke  or  saddle,  as  shown  by  Figs.  62  and  63. 

We  have  still  another  form  of  valve,  known  as  the  Cross  Valve. 
which,  in  construction,  is  quite  similar  to  the  angle  valve,  with 
the  exception,  however,  that  it  has  two  discharge  openings  instead 


76       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


of  a  single  one.     The  cross  valve  is  a  convenient  one  to  use  when 
it  is  desired  to  discharge  in  opposite  directions. 

All  of  the  above  valves,  shown  in  Fig.  57  to  Fig.  63,  inclusive, 
may  be  had  in  the  larger  sizes  with  flanges  for  bolting  to  com- 
panion flanges  on  the  piping. 


FIG.  62. — Globe  valve  with  yoke. 


FIG.  63.— Gate  valve  with  yoke. 


When  it  is  desired  that  the  flow  through  a  pipe  should  be  in 
one  direction  only,  the  result  is  secured  by  the  use  of  a  form  of 
valve,  known  as  a  Check  Valve.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  fact 
that  it  checks  the  reverse  flow  of  steam  or  water  in  the  pipe.  These 
valves  are  of  three  varieties,  the  horizontal  check,  the  vertical  check 
and  the  angle  check.  The  common  type  of  check  valve  is  what 
is  known  as  the  Swinging  Check  Valve,  and  is  illustrated  by  Fig. 


FIG.  64.— Swing  check  valve. 


FIG.  65. — Interior  of  swing  check  valve. 


64  and  Fig.  65,  the  views  showing  the  exterior  and  interior  of  the 
valve. 

There  are  other  types  of  valves  manufactured  for  special  pur- 
poses, but  those  as  above  described  and  illustrated  are  those  gen- 
erally used  by  the  heating  contractor. 


VALVES 

Air  Valves 


7? 


Doubtless  no  portion  of  a  heating  apparatus  has  received  more 
attention  or  has  been  more  experimented  with  and  improved  than 
has  the  air  valve.  In  all  heating  apparatus  it  is  necessary  to  pro- 
vide a  means  of  escape  for  the  air  in  the  system,  piping  or  radia- 
tors, and  this  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of  an  air  valve.  The 
simplest  form  of  an  air  valve  is  the  compression  valve.  Fig.  66 


FIG.  66. — Wood  wheel  compression  air  valve. 

shows  the  common  type  of  a  wood-wheel  compression  air  valve. 
Fig.  67  shows  the  type  of  compression  air  valve  as  used  on  a  hot- 
water  system ;  this  air  valve  is  operated  with  a  key. 

While  we  wish  our  readers  to  become  familiar  with  the  various 
types  of  air  valves,  it  would  be  next  to  impossible  to  illustrate  or 
describe  all  of  them  in  a  book  of  this  character,  as  there  is  such 
a  multiplicity  of  styles.  In  fact,  nearly  all  manufacturers  of  radia- 
tor valves  also^make  several  patterns  or  designs  of  air  valves. 


FIG.  67. — Lock  and  shield  .compression  air  valve. 

Air  valves  are  of  two  general  kinds :  positive  and  automatic. 
The  positive  type  is  of  the  compression  variety,  which  we  have 
already  described  and  illustrated. 

Automatic  air  valves  are  all  made  on  the  same  general  prin- 
ciple, although  various  different  metals  or  substances  are  employed 
in  their  manufacture.  Most  of  the  automatic  air  valves  close  by 


78       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

the  expansion  of  and  open  by  the  contraction  of  the  metal  or  sub- 
stance employed  in  the  interior  of  the  valve.  The  early  types  of 
automatic  air  valves  are  the  Breckenridge,  shown  by  Fig.  68  and 
Fig.  69,  the  Baker,  shown  by  Fig.  70  and  Fig.  71.  In  this  type 


n 


FIG.  68.— Breck- 
enridge auto- 
matic air  valve. 


No.  1  No.  2  No.  3 

FIG.  70. — Baker  automatic  air  valve. 


FIG.  72. — Interior  of  Victor  automatic 
air  valve. 


FIG.  69.— Breck- 
enridge auto- 
matic air  valve 
with  drip. 


f  -;--— > 

FIG.  73. — Victor  automatic  air  valve  with 
wood  wheel. 


FIG.  71.— Inte- 
rior of  Baker 
automatic  air 
valve. 


of  valve  the  strip  of  brass  or  tube  used  in  the  interior  of  the 
valve,  when  expanded  by  contact  with  the  steam,  will  seat  or 
close  the  valve,  which  will  again  open  when  the  steam  pressure 
is  removed. 


VALVES 


79 


As  automatic  valves  are  now  manufactured,  the  expansion  post 
or  tube  is  made  of  carbon  or  a  composite  material,  which  will  ex- 
pand more  quickly  than  metal,  as  shown  by  Fig.  72  and  Fig.  73. 
Others  are  made  with  a  combination  of  the  expansion  post  and  a 
float,  which  temporarily  closes  the  valve  should  there  be  any  water 
forced  through  the  air-valve  opening  of  the  radiator.  Fig.  74 
shows  an  air  valve  of  this  type. 

Still  another  variety  is  that  shown  by  Fig.  75.  The  float 
of  this  valve  is  sealed  and  contains  a  liquid  extremely  sensitive  to 


FIG.  74. — Automatic  air  valve  with 
expansion  post  and  float. 


FIG.  75. — Russell  automatic 
air  valve. 


heat,  which  vaporizes  at  a  temperature  of  151°  Fahr.,  expanding 
the  ends  of  the  float,  which  are  corrugated,  closing  the  valve. 

Some  makes  of  air  valves  are  provided  with  a  vacuum  attach- 
ment, which,  working  in  connection  with  the  float  and  expansion 
post,  allows  the  air  to  escape  under  pressure  from  the  steam,  clos- 
ing against  the  steam  when  all  air  is  expelled.  When  the  steam 
pressure  is  removed,  or  the  system  is  cooled,  the  attachment  ef- 
fectually closes  the  air  port  preventing  the  return  again  of  air 
through  the  valve.  Thus  the  system  is  placed  under  a  partial 


vacuum. 


80       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

One  of  the  greatest  of  the  troubles  that  the  steam  fitter  has 
to  contend  with  is  air  in  the  system.  The  radiators  or  radiating 
surfaces  becoming  air  bound,  the  steam  cannot  enter,  nor  the  hot 
water  circulate.  It  is  of  importance  then  that  the  steam  fitter 
should  use  a  type  of  air  valve  which  will  effectually  do  the  work 
required. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

Forms  of  Radiating  Surfaces 

ONE  of  the  most  interesting  parts  of  the  study  of  the  science 
of  steam  and  hot-water  heating  is  to  be  found  in  following  up  the 
improvements  in  the  beauty  and  utility  of  the  radiating  surfaces 
employed  in  the  distribution  of  heat.  Perhaps  no  part  of  a  heat- 
ing apparatus  shows  so  well  the  effort  of  "  Yankee  "  ingenuity 


FIG.  77.— The  Whittier  radiator. 


FIG.  76.— The  Verona 
radiator. 

as  the  various  styles  of  heating  surfaces  we  to-day  call  radiators, 
for  the  radiator  is  of  American  origin. 

From  the  old  pipe  box  coil,  or  the  "  pan  "  radiator  made  of 
sheet  iron,  to  the  American  Radiator  Company's  "  Verona,"  as 
shown  by  Fig.  76,  or,  in  fact,  almost  any  one  of  the  present  orna- 

81 


82       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

mental  cast-iron  radiators,  is  an  achievement  of  which  any  person 
connected  with  the  heating  industry  may  be  justly  proud. 


FIG.  78.— The  Bundy  loop  radiator. 


FIG.  79.— The  Reed  radiator. 

It  is  probable  that  the  first  direct  radiator  to  be  manufactured 
and   sold   in   any  quantity   was    the  original   "  Bundy  "    radiator, 


FORMS    OF    RADIATING    SURFACES 


83 


made  with  a  cast-iron  base  into  which  were  screwed  short  lengths 
of  one-inch  pipe  capped  at  the  top  and  covered  with  a  cast-iron 


FIG.  80. — The  Union  radiator. 


FIG.  81.— The  Pyro  radiator. 


fretwork  top.      This   was   followed  by   other   makes   of  pipe-tube 

radiators  of  similar  design. 

The  first  of  the  cast-iron  direct  radiators  were  the  "  Whittier," 


FIG.  82.— The  Elite  radiator. 


Fig.  77,  and  the  "  Bimdy "  loop  radiator,  shown  by  Fig.  78. 
These  radiators  were  placed  on  the  market  about  the  year  1873  or 
1874,  the  former  bv  the  H.  B.  Smith  Co.  and  the  latter  bv  the 


84       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

A.  A.  Griffing  Iron  Co.  Improvements  in  design  and  manufac- 
ture followed  almost  immediately,  the  H.  B.  Smith  Co.  bringing 
out  the  "  Reed  "  radiator,  Fig.  79,  and  still  later  the  "  Union," 
shown  by  Fig.  80.  The  A.  A.  Griffing  Iron  Co.  followed  the 
"Bundy"  with  the  "  Pyro,"  Fig.  81  (1876),  and  the  "Elite," 
Fig.  82  (1877).  The  Exeter  Machine  Co.,  of  Exeter,  N.  H.,  were 
early  in  the  field  with  the  "  Exeter,"  a  cast-iron  radiator  of  double- 
tube  construction. 


FIG.  83.— The  Gold  Pin  indirect  radiator. 

Of  the  cast-iron  indirect  radiators  the  "  Gold  "  pin  radiator, 
Fig.  83,  was  the  first,  the  original  being  manufactured  as  early  as 
1862,  and  is  no  doubt  the  oldest  of  the  cast-iron  radiators  in  any 
form  used  for  heating.  The  illustration  shows  the  improved  style 
which,  however,  is  quite  similar  to  the  original. 

The  "Bundy  Climax,"  Fig.  84,  is  another  type  of  the  early 
indirect  radiators. 


FIG.  84. — The  Bundy  Climax  indirect  radiator. 

Radiators  may  now  be  obtained  in  numerous  heights  and  widths 
to  fill  any  desired  space  and  in  a  multitude  of  designs  of  orna- 
mentation, which  when  properly  decorated  become  a  thing  of 
beauty  as  compared  with  the  ugly  looking  box  coil.  Illustrative 
of  this  we  show  a  low-down  window  radiator,  Fig.  85,  of  such  a 
height  that  a  seat  may  be  built  over  it,  thus  making  not  only  a 
warm  and  comfortable  window  seat,  but  adding  also  largely  to 
the  beauty  of  the  room. 


FORMS    OF    RADIATING    SURFACES 


85 


Pipe  coils  in  residence  heating  have  been  almost  entirely   su- 
perseded by  what  is  known  as  the  Wall  Radiator,  Fig.  86.     This 


FIG.  85. — Window  radiator. 


type  of  radiator  is  largely  used  in  narrow  halls,  bath  rooms,  or 
in  fact,  any  place  where  there  is  an  abundance  of  wall  space  and 


FIG.  86.— Wall  radiator. 


but  little  floor  space,  and  while  not  so  effective  as  a  pipe  coil,  is 
much  more  effective  than  the  regular  type  of  radiator. 


86       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

Cast-iron  radiators,  direct  and  indirect,  and  direct-indirect,  are 
now  manufactured  by  many  concerns,  the  largest  of  which  is  the 
American  Radiator  Company,  originally  formed  by  the  merging 
of  the  Tierce  Company,  of  Buffalo,  and  the  Detroit  and  Perfection 
Radiator  Companies,  of  Detroit.  The  extremely  large  output  of 
this  concern,  together  with  the  other  manufacturers  of  radiators, 
bears  witness  to  the  great  popularity  of  steam  and  hot-water  heat- 
ing in  this  country. 

Pipe  Coils 

Pipe  coils  are  still  used  largely  on  factory  or  other  work  where 
their  appearance  is  not  objectionable.  There  are  several  styles 
of  pipe  coils  as  generally  used.  Fig.  87  illustrates  the  Miter  Coil 


BRANCH  TEE- MITRE  COIL 

FIG.  87. — Mitre  pipe  coil. 

made  with  branch  tees  and  right  and  left  elbows.  The  position 
of  the  air  valve,  as  shown  at  A,  is  for  hot  water.  If  for  steam,  the 
coil  should  be  vented  at  end  marked  B  and  the  air  valve  should  be 
placed  on  the  branch  tee  just  above  the  lowest  pipe  of  the  coil. 
In  building  all  coils  used  for  steam,  expansion  must  be  provided 
for,  and  the  angles  in  this  style  of  coil  formed  by  the  right  and 
left  elbows  provide  for  the  expansion.  It  should  always  be  used 
on  walls  at  the  position  shown  in  the  illustration,  with  the  miter 
end  up,  and  it  may  also  be  used  as  a  ceiling  coil. 

Fig.  88  shows  the  Corner  Coil.  This  coil  as  shown  and  vented 
•s  for  hot  water,  but  may  also  be  used  for  steam. 

The  Return   Bend   Coil,  Fig.   89,  is   not   so   good   for   steam 


FORMS    OF    RADIATING    SURFACES 


87 


Feed 


FIG.  88. — Corner  pipe  coil. 


Reiur 


n 

tf\ 

i  ci 

V  ] 

\% 

p 

vJ         |  l<-  Return 

Return   Bend  Coil 

FIG.  89. — Return  bend  pipe  coil. 


RETURN    BRANCH    TEE    COIL 

FIG.  90. — Return  branch  tee  pipe  coil. 


88       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


as  either  of  those  already  mentioned,  as  the  steam  must  travel 
through  the  entire  coil  in  a  single  pipe.  When  used  for  steam  it 
should  be  vented  at  B ;  when  used  for  hot  water  it  should  be  vented 
at  A. 

Fig.  90  illustrates  the  Return  Branch  Tee  Coil.     Where  the 
length  of  wall  space  is  limited,  this  is  a  very  compact  type  of  coil 


Standing 
Wall  Coil 


FIG.  91. — Upright  coil  pipe. 


to  use.  It  is  made  with  one  set  of  right  hand  elbows,  the  other  set 
being  right  and  left  hand  elbows.  When  used  for  hot  water,  vent 
as  shown  at  A;  when  used  for  steam,  vent  at  end  marked  B,  but 
place  vent  lower  down  on  the  coil,  as  recommended  for  coil  shown 
by  Fig.  SI. 


FORMS    OF    RADIATING    SURFACES  89 

A  style  of  coil  used  for  hot  water  is  shown  by  Fig.  91.  Do 
not  use  a  coil  of  this  character  for  steam,  as  suitable  provision  is 
not  made  for  expansion  and  trouble  would  ensue. 

To  those  who  have  had  no  very  great  experience  in  building  coils 
it  may  not  be  amiss  to  say  a  few  words  regarding  coil  building. 
There  are  many  methods  of  procedure,  any  one  of  which  when 
the  details  are  properly  worked  out  will  result  in  a  neat  and  well- 
proportioned  coil. 

We  will  take  the  miter  coil  for  illustration,  and  our  method 
is  as  follows :  Determine  the  center  to  center  measurements  of  the 
openings  of  the  branch  tees  to  be  used  and  with  an  ordinary  chalked 


— W-H- 


i  FIG.  92. — Diagram  for  coil  making. 

line  snap  as  many  chalk  lines  upon  the  shop  floor  as  there  are 
openings  in  the  branch  tees  to  be  used,  making  the  distance  be- 
tween the  lines  the  center  to  center  measurement  of  the  openings 
in  the  branch  tees.  Calling  these  the  horizontal  lines,  make  at 
one  end  the  same  number  of  vertical  lines  the  same  distance  apart. 
Determine  the  length  and  height  of  coil  according  to  the  space  to 
be  used,  and  then  lay  the  branch  tees  and  R.  and  L.  elbows  on  the 
marks  as  shown  by  Fig.  92.  It  is  well  to  have  the  left  hand  thread 
of  the  elbow  looking  toward  the  short  or  expansion  end  of  the  coil. 
Accurate  measurements  for  the  pipes  may  now  be  taken.  The 
line  A  is  the  longest  pipe  of  the  coil.  The  line  B  is  the  longest 
of  the  upright  or  expansion  pipes.  To  make  a  symmetrical  and 


90       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

neat  appearing  coil  the  shortest  upright  pipe   C  should  be  iu 
length  but  one  third  that  of  D,  the  shortest  horizontal  pipe. 

Cut  right  hand  threads  on  each  end  of  the  long  pipes  and  a 
right  hand  thread  on  one  end  of  the  short  pipes  and  a  left  hand 
thread  on  the  other  end.  Make  the  right  hand  side  of  the  elbows 
on  one  end  of  the  long  pipes  and  make  the  other  end  of  the  pipe 
into  one  of  the  branch  tees,  with  the  elbows  in  proper  position  to 
receive  the  short  end  of  the  coil. 


FIG.  93.— Coil  partially  completed. 

This  portion  of  the  coil  now  looks  as  shown  by  Fig.  93.  Next 
Legin  with  the  pipe  marked  C  on  Fig.  92  and  make  this  up 
in  the  usual  manner  of  making  right  and  left  hand  connec- 
tions, following  with  the  next  shortest  pipe  and  so  on  until  coil 
is  completed.  While  yet  on  the  shop  floor,  see  that  the  alignment 
of  the  pipes  is  perfect.  If  not,  make  it  so,  when  the  coil  is  ready 
to  hang  in  position. 


HOOK   PLATE  EXPANSION    PLATE 


RING   PLATE  CO!L  STANDS 

FIG.  94. — Hook  plates  and  coil  stands. 

The  same  general  method  of  laying  out  measurements  is  used 
in  making  all  styles  of  coils.  Wall  coils  are  held  in  place  by  hook 
plates  fastened  singly  or  in  groups,  as  shown  by  Fig.  94.  Ceil- 
in  gf  coils  are  hung  or  suspended  by  different  forms  of  hangers  so 
arranged  as  to  give  the  proper  pitch  or  drip  to  the  coil  and  to 
allow  of  expansion  and  contraction. 


CHAPTER    IX 

Locating  Radiating  Surfaces 

THE  proper  location  of  the  radiator,  whether  direct,  indirect, 
or  direct-indirect,  has  much  to  do  with  the  success  of  a  heating 
plant. 

Direct  radiators  should  be  located  on  outside  walls  or  under  the 
windows  of  the  most  exposed  parts  of  a  building.  Indirect  radia- 


REGISTER  FOR  INDIRECT 
RADIATOR 


FIG.  95. — Locating  radiators  and  registers. 

tors,  or  more  properly  speaking,  the  register  openings  from  in- 
direct radiators,  should  be  located  on  the  warmer  or  less  exposed 
side  of  the  room.  With  direct-indirect  radiators  it  is  well,  if  pos- 
sible, to  place  them  under  windows.  To  illustrate  this  we  show 

91 


92       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

by  Fig.  95  a  room  with  two  walls  exposed.  The  dotted  line  divid- 
ing the  room  cornerwise  shows  the  warm  and  cold  or  exposed  parts 
of  the  room.  If  heated  by  a  direct  radiator,  it  should  be  located 
in  either  of  the  positions  shown,  and  if  heated  by  indirect  radiation 
the  register  should  be  located  in  the  floor  or  wall  at  or  near  either 
position  shown  on  the  illustration. 

When  called  upon  to  place  and  box  an  indirect  radiator  the 
steam  fitter  frequently  becomes  confused.  As  an  aid  to  the  proper 
hanging  and  boxing  of  indirects  we  shall  illustrate  and  describe 
the  usual  methods  followed. 

Fig.  96  shows  a  method  of  installing  an  indirect  where  the  hot- 
air  flue  and  register  are  placed  in  the  wall.  Figs.  97  and  98  show 


FIG.  96. — Indirect  radiator — register  in  wall. 

two  methods  of  installing  indirect  radiators  when  floor  registers  are 
used.  The  casing  or  boxing  should  fit  snugly  against  the  radiator 
sections  in  order  that  the  air  will  pass  through  the  radiator  and 
not  around  it,  and  the  cold-air  supply  or  duct  should  always  be 
provided  with  a  damper.  It  is  well  to  take  the  hot-air  duct  from 
the  boxing  at  the  end  opposite  to  that  where  the  cold  air  enters 
in  order  that  the  air  will  travel  as  great  a  distance  through  the 
radiator  sections  as  possible. 

A  number  of  sections   of  indirect  radiation  when   nippled  or 
bolted  together  are  usually  referred  to  as  a  "  stack  "  of  indirect 


LOCATING    RADIATING    SURFACES 


radiation,  or  as  an  "  indirect  stack."  The  space  between  the  top 
of  a  stack  and  the  casing  should  be  from  eight  to  ten  inches  and 
the  space  between  the  bottom  of  the  stack  and  the  lower  side  of  the 
casing  should  be  six  or  eight  inches. 


FIG.  97. — Indirect  radiator — register  in  floor. 

The  hot-air  supply  or  area  of  the  hot-air  duct  should  be,  for 
hot  water,  2  sq.  in.  of  area,  or  for  steam  1%  sq.  in.  of  area  for 
each  sq.  ft.  of  radiation  in  the  stack.  As  a  general  rule,  the  cold- 


-  Register 


\ 


FIG.  98. — Indirect  radiator — register  in  floor. 


94       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND  .  VENTILATION 


air  supply  or  area  of  the  cold-air  duct  should  be  from  two  thirds 
(66|$)  to  three  fourths  (75^)  of  the  area  of  the  hot-air  flue.  Cir- 
cumstances vary  these  figures  somewhat,  but  the  above  represents 
a  fair  average.  The  following  table  gives  the  proper  sizes  of 
hot  and  cold  air  ducts  and  sizes  of  registers  for  both  steam  and 
hot-wai;er  indirect  heating  under  ordinary  conditions. 

TABLE  X 

INDIRECT  WORK. — SIZES  OF  COLD  AND  HOT  AIR  DUCTS  AND  REGISTERS — 
FOR  FIRST  FLOOR 


INDIRECT     HOT     WATER 

INDIRECT    STEAM 

Sq.  ft.  of 

Heating 
Surface. 

Sq.  in. 
Cold-air 
Duct. 

Sq.  in. 
Hot-air 
Duct. 

Size  of 
Register. 

Sq.  ft.  of 
Heating 
Surface. 

Sq.  in. 
Cold-air 
Duct. 

Sq.  in. 
Hot-air 
Duct. 

Size  of 
Register. 

26 

36 

48 

8X12 

13             36 

48 

8X12 

52 

54 

72 

9X12 

26 

54 

•    72 

9X12 

78 

72 

96 

10X14 

39 

72 

96 

10X14 

104 

96 

120 

12X15 

52 

90 

120 

12X15 

130 

108 

144 

12X19 

65 

108 

144 

12X19 

156 

126 

168 

14X22 

78 

126 

168 

14X22 

182 

144 

192 

14X24 

91 

144 

192 

14X24 

208 

162 

216 

16X20 

104 

162 

216 

20X20 

234 

180 

240 

16X24 

117 

180 

240 

20X24 

260 

198 

264 

20X20 

130 

198 

264 

20X24 

286 

216 

288 

20X24 

143 

216 

288 

24X24 

312 

234 

312 

20X24 

156 

234 

312 

24X24 

NOTE. — Registers  and  hoi-air  ducts  to  upper  floors  should  be  from  25  to  30  per 
cent,  smaller  than  for  first  floor  as  given  above. 

It  is  well  to  be  generous  in  the  size  of  flues,  as  if  properly 
dampered  they  may  be  reduced  at  any  time  as  desired. 

There  are  two  good  methods  in  vogue  of  hanging  a  stack  of 
indirect  radiation.  Fig.  99  shows  one  method, — that  of  eye  bolts 
screwed  into  the  joists,  suspending  a  cross  bar  of  pipe  on  which 
the  stack  rests.  Fig.  100  shows  another  method  and  one  which 
we  favor,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  weight  of  the  radiator  is  dis- 
tributed across  several  joists.  Heavy  stacks  suspended  on  a  pair 
of  supports  or  hangers  in  this  manner  will  not  weaken  or  strain 
the  flooring  as  much  as  when  the  former  method  is  employed. 

Casings  may  be  made  of  wood  lined  with  tin  or  of  sheet  iron, 
as  may  be  desired.  A  casing  of  galvanized  iron  with  joints  seamed 


LOCATING    RADIATING    SURFACES 


95 


or  bolted  together  is  without  doubt  the  best  method  to  use,  as  it 
not  only  presents  a  neat  appearance,  but  is  the  most  durable. 
Fig.  101  shows  the  method  of  setting  a  direct-indirect  radiator 


FIG.  99. — Method  of  supporting  indirect  stack. 


DA V PER 


FIG.  100.— Another  method  of  supporting 
indirect  stack. 


FIG.  101.— Method  of  setting 
direct-indirect  radiator. 


and  while  there  are  several  modifications  of  this  style,  the  principle 
for  the  setting  of  all  direct-indirects  is  the  same. 

The  wall  boxes,  Fig.  102,  are  of  standard  size,  conforming  to 
brick  measurements  and  are  furnished  by  all  manufacturers  of  ra- 


FIG.   10-2. — Wall  box  for  direct-indirect  radiator. 

diators.  The  radiator  itself  is  of  the  ordinary  direct  pattern.  It 
is  fitted  with  and  rests  on  a  box  base.  This  base  is  provided  with 
a  damper  and  is  connected  to  the  cold-air  wall  box  by  a  boxing 


96       PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

made  of  galvanized  iron  or  tin.  Fig.  108  shows  a  base  of  this  kind. 
By  closing  the  damper  to  the  cold-air  duct  and  opening  the  damper 
in  the  box  base,  the  radiator  may  be  used  as  a  direct  radiator.  This 


FIG.  103. — Box  base  for  direct-indirect  radiator. 

is  of  importance  in  connection  with  the  heating  of  a  cold  room 
or  when  ventilation  is  not  necessary. 

The  "  flue  "  type  of  radiator  is  the  best  design  for  direct-in- 
direct, owing  to  the  length  of  air  travel  through  the  flues  between 


FIG.  104. — Flue  type  of  direct-indirect  radiator. 

the  sections.  Fig.  104  shows  a  section  of  a  flue  radiator.  By  refer- 
ence to  the  following  chapter  our  readers  will  learn  why  we  believe 
a  radiator  of  this  type  is  best  adapted  for  work  of  this  character. 


CHAPTER    X 

Estimating  Radiation 

HAVING  considered  the  various  forms  of  radiating  surfaces 
and  their  proper  location,  we  have  now  reached  that  part  of  the 
work  which  the  steam  fitter  frequently  finds  confusing,  viz.:  the 
estimating  of  radiation.  This  requires  careful  thought  and  study 
on  the  part  of  the  steam  fitter,  as  no  two  jobs  of  heating  are  alike, 
excepting,  of  course,  there  be  two  buildings  erected  from  the  same 
plans ;  therefore,  each  j  ob  or  contract  for  heating  must  be  consid- 
ered separately  and  the  radiation  estimated  accordingly. 

As  a  rule,  all  radiation  is  first  estimated  as  direct,  that  is  to  say, 
the  amount  of  direct  radiation  necessary  to  do  the  work  required, 
and  certain  percentages  are  added  if  the  radiation  or  any  por- 
tion of  it  is  to  be  direct-indirect  or  indirect. 

Many  good  rules  are  in  vogue  for  estimating,  any  one  of  which 
will  give  proper  results  if  applied  with  good  judgment,  but  just 
as  there  are  exceptions  to  all  other  rules,  so  that  it  is  in  estimating 
radiation.  To  use  good  judgment  it  is  necessary  that  we  should 
understand  something  of  the  cooling  surfaces  in  a  room  or  build- 
ing, the  action  of  the  heat  from  a  radiator  upon  the  air  in  a  room 
and  the  heat  loss  from  a  radiator  under  certain  varying  con- 
ditions. 

The  principal  cooling  surfaces  of  a  room  are  the  exposed  or 
exterior  walls  and  the  glass  surface  (windows)  and  outside  doors. 
A  room  with  two  sides  exposed,  for  instance,  a  corner  room,  will 
require  more  radiation  than  an  intermediate  room  with  but  one 
v^all  exposed,  while  a  room  having  two  windows  and  an  outside 
door  will  require  correspondingly  more  radiation  than  a  room 
with  but  one  window.  Just  how  much  more  is  determined  by 
rule. 

Again,  if  there  be  no  objects  such  as  trees  or  adjacent  buildings 
to  protect  any  one  of  the  sides  of  a  house,  the  north,  west,  or 

97 


98        PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

northwest  rooms  will  need  more  radiating  surface  than  the  rooms 
on  the  south,  east,  or  southeast  sides  of  the  building.  The  rea- 
son for  this  is  readily  seen,  as  practically  all  the  chilly  winter 
winds  come  from  the  north,  west,  or  northwest. 

A  frame  building  without  weather  board  or  paper  used  in  its 
construction  requires  more  radiation  than  one  with  this  additional 
protection,  and  either  one  requires  more  than  a  brick  or  stone 
building. 


FIG.  105. — Circulation  of  air  bv  direct  radiator. 


As  to  the  action  of  the  heat  from  a  radiator  upon  the  air  of 
the  room,  the  radiator,  if  direct,  should  be  placed  in  the  coldest 
place  in  the  room,  as  stated  in  the  preceding  chapter,  for  the  rea- 
son that  it  meets  and  warms  the  cold  air  entering  through  the  out- 
side walls  and  windows,  tempers  and  heats  it,  causing  it  to  cir- 
culate or  turn  in  the  room,  thus  warming  all  portions  of  the  room 
to  a  uniform  temperature. 

Fig.   105  shows  the  action  of  a  direct  radiator  upon  the  air 


ESTIMATING    RADIATION 


99 


in  a  room,  the  arrows  indicating  the  direction  of  the  air  currents. 
We  note  that  the  heated  air  first  rises  to  the  ceiling  where  the  air 
of  the  room  is  lighter  than  below,  then  passes  to  an  inside  wall, 
where  it  is  forced  downward  and  drawn  across  the  floor  again 
to  the  radiator,  where  it  receives  the  same  treatment  as  before, 
the  rapidity  of  the  circulation  depending  upon  the  volume  of  heat 
from  the  radiator.  Note  also  the  downward  draught  of  the  cold  air 
entering  at  the  window,  and  how  it  is  prevented  from  entering  the 


Screen 


FIG.  106. — Circulation  of  air  by  indirect  radiator. 

body  of  the  room.  Should  the  radiator  be  placed  along  an  outside 
wall  between  two  windows,  or  in  a  corner,  the  cold  air  entering 
through  the  windows  would  pass  downward  to  the  floor  and  then  be 
drawn  along  the  floor  to  the  radiator. 

Heat,  or  more  properly,  heated  air,  from  an  indirect  radiator 
passes  directly  to  the  ceiling,  then  across  to  the  windows  or  out- 
side wall  where,  as  it  cools,  it  settles  to  the  floor  and  is  drawn 
across  the  floor  again  to  the  register  as  shown  by  Fig.  106.  It 


100     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

is  for  this  reason  that  churches  or  rooms  with  very  high  ceil- 
ings are  very  difficult  to  heat  with  indirect  radiation  without  the 
assistance  of  some  direct  radiators  to  aid  in  turning  the  air  of 
the  room. 

Where  direct-indirect  radiation  is  placed  the  action  upon  the 
air  in  the  room  is  similar  to  that  of  the  direct  radiator  as  shown 
by  Fig.  105. 

Rules  for  Estimating  Radiation 

Some  one  has  aptly  said,  "  We  gain  knowledge  and  profit  by  the 
mistakes  of  others,"  and  truly  this  is  exemplified  in  figuring  radia- 
tion. Many  years  ago  the  writer  was  taught  to  estimate  radiation 
by  the  following  rule: 

For  Steam 

To  ascertain  the  amount  of  radiation  required  find  the  cubical 
contents  and  divide  the  result  by  the  following  factors  • 

Living  rooms,  ordinary  exposure 50 

Living  rooms,  extraordinary  exposure 40 

Bath  and  dressing  rooms 40 

Staircase  halls 50-  70 

•  Sleeping  rooms 55—  70 

School  rooms 60-  80 

.Churches,  theaters,  halls,  etc 65-100 

Factories    75-150 

For  Hot  Water 

Add  one  third  to  the  result  obtained  for  steam. 

For  direct-indirect,  add  twenty-five  per  cent,  and  for  indirect, 
add  fifty  per  cent. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  the  results  obtained  by  this  old 
rule,  which  is  now  almost  entirely  obsolete,  were  anything  but  cor- 
rect, and  unless  the  person  using  the  rule  was  thoroughly  con- 
versant as  to  the  requirements  of  certain  rooms,  or  was  endowed  with 
extraordinary  good  judgment,  many  errors  would  result.  Yet 
many  heating  contractors  are  to-day  using  this  rule  or  some  other 
"  rule  of  thumb  "  just  as  antiquated. 


ESTIMATING    RADIATION  101 

Some  Dependable  Rules 

Baldwin's  :  "  Divide  the  difference  in  temperature  between  that 
at  which  the  room  is  to  be  kept  and  the  coldest  outside  atmosphere, 
by  the  difference  between  the  temperature  of  the  steam  in  the  radia- 
tor and  that  at  which  you  wish  to  keep  the  room  and  the  product 
will  be  the  square  feet  of  radiating  surface  to  be  allowed  for  each 
square  foot  of  equivalent  glass  surface."  (Mr.  Baldwin  estimates 
that  a  square  foot  of  glass  and  a  square  yard  of  ordinary  outside 
wall  have  about  the  same  cooling  value.) 

As  an  example  of  this,  take  outside  temperature  at  zero  and 
the  rule  results  as  follows  : 

Temperature  desired  in  room  ..............    70° 

Outside  temperature  (zero)    ...............      0° 

Difference    .............................    70° 


Again:  Temperature  of  steam  in  radiator  212°  minus  70° 
(temperature  of  room)  equals  142°;  142  divided  by  70  equals 
0.493,  or  about  one  half  a  square  foot  of  radiation  for  each 
square  foot  of  glass  or  its  equivalent  (one  square  yard  of  out- 
side wall). 

The  above  covers  only  the  exposure  of  the  room  and  is  for  a 
well-built  building.  Loose  windows,  poor  construction,  etc.,  must 
be  taken  into  consideration  and  the  proper  allowances  made. 

Another  rule  (and  the  one  used  by  the  author  for  quick  fig- 
uring) is  that  of  Mills,  and  briefly  stated,  is  as  follows: 

To  find  the  amount  of  radiation  required  to  heat  a  room  with 
low-pressure  steam  to  70°  Fahr.  when  the  outside  temperature  is  at 
0°  Fahr.,  allow  one  square  foot  of  radiation  for  each  200  cubic 
feet  of  contents,  one  square  foot  of  radiation  for  each  20  square 
feet  of  outside  wall  surface,  and  one  square  foot  of  radiation  for 
each  2  square  feet  of  glass  surface  (counting  outside  doors  as 
glass  surface).  The  product  of  these  results  will  be  the  amount 
of  radiation  required. 

For  hot  water  add  60  per  cent  to  this  result. 

As  an  example  consider  a  room  12'  X  15'  in  size,  having  a 
10  ft.  ceiling.  The  cubical  contents,  found  by  multiplying 
12  X  15  X  10,  equals  1,800  cu.  ft.  One  12  ft.  side  is  exposed  wall: 


102     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

12  X  10  =  120  sq.  ft.  of  exposed  wall  surface.     The  room  has  two 
windows  3  X  6' :  3  X  6  =  18  X  2  =  36  sq.  ft.  of  glass  surface. 

1,800  —  200=    9 

120—    20=    6 

36  —      2  =  18 

Total  S3  sq.  ft.  radiation. 

For  hot  water:  33  X  60$  =  19.8  +  33  =  52.8  sq.  ft.  of  ra- 
diation required. 

It  is  the  custom  of  the  author  to  add  25$  to  the  amount  of 
direct  for  direct-indirect,  either  steam  or  hot  water,  and  for  in- 
direct to  add  50$  for  steam  and  60$  for  hot  water. 

While  there  are  many  rules  for  estimating  and  some  of  them 
possibly  a  little  more  accurate  than  the  above,  we  consider  either 
Baldwin's  or  Mills's  rule  to  be  the  simplest  and  best,  as  they  are 
free  from  complicated  methods  not  readily  understood. 

The  author  has  found  that  it  was  excellent  practice  to  increase 
the  radiation  somewhat  on  the  north  and  west  sides  of  a  building, 
also  that  when  a  building  is  heated  intermittently  (as  is  the  case 
with  some  churches,  halls,  etc.)  the  radiation  should  be  increased 
25$  over  and  above  the  normal  amount  required  should  the  build- 
ing be  heated  continuously. 

It  is  well  to  become  familiar  with  two  or  more  rules,  using  one 
as  a  check  upon  the  other. 


CHAPTER    XI 

Steam-Heating  Apparatus 

IN  one  of  the  early  chapters  of  this  book  we  gave  a  brief  his- 
tory of  steam  heating  and  its  introduction  in  this  country.  We  shall 
now  take  up  the  many  various  systems  and  consider  the  advantages 
or  disadvantages  of  each,  showing  also  the  various  styles  of  piping. 

The  early  method  of  heating  by  steam  was  with  the  two-pipe 
system,  small  sizes  of  pipe  being  used  and  a  high  pressure  of  steam 
maintained.  As  our  knowledge  of  steam  heating  increased,  larger 
piping  and  a  lower  pressure  were  made  use  of. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  many  buildings,  such  as  factories 
and  offices,  or  commercial  buildings,  where  a  medium  or  compara- 
tively high  pressure  is  used,  the  steam  being  generated  at  high 
pressure  by  the  boilers  and  reduced  for  use  in  the  heating  system. 
On  work  of  this  character  the  water  of  condensation  is  returned  to 
the  boiler  by  return  steam  traps  or  by  a  pump. 

For  the  heating  of  residences  and  small  buildings,  we  use  what 
is  called  a  "  gravity  system,"  the  pressure  of  steam  being  from  one 
to  five  pounds,  the  condensed  steam  returning  to  boiler  by  its  own 
gravity.  The  boiler  is  located  below  the  level  of  all  mains  and 
radiators.  It  is  of  this  latter  method  that  we  shall  treat,  illustrat- 
ing and  explaining  each  system. 

Low-pressure  gravity  steam  heating  may  be  divided  into  sev- 
eral systems  or  styles  of  construction,  as  follows : 

(a)  The  one-pipe  system,  where  the  radiators  are  connected  by 
a  single  pipe  which  is  used  both  as  flow  and  return. 

(b)  The  two-pipe  system,  where  each  radiator  has  a  separate 
flow  and  return  pipe.     This  system  also  necessitates  a  double  sys- 
tem of  cellar  piping. 

These  two  methods  may  be  subdivided  into  several  styles  or 
systems,  viz. : 

103 


104     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

(a)  The  Circuit  System. 

(b)  The  Divided  Circuit  System. 

(c)  The  One-pipe  System  with  Dry  Returns. 

(d)  The  Overhead  System. 

Fig.  107  illustrates  the  regular  circuit  system.    The  steam  main 
rises  from  the  boiler  as  high  as  possible,  or  as  high  as  circum- 


FIG.  107. — Circuit  system  of  steam  heating. 

stances  or  height  of  basement  will  permit.  This  is  the  high  point 
of  the  system,  so  far  as  the  steam  main  is  concerned.  From  this 
point  the  main  makes  a  circuit  of  the  building,  as  shown  by  illus- 
tration. This  circuit  is  made  at  a  distance  of  from  two  to  six  feet 


STEAM-HEATING    APPARATUS 


105 


from  basement  wall  (circumstances  governing  this  distance),  the 
main  pitching- downward  from  the  boiler  from  %"  to  V  in  each 
ten  feet  of  length.  In  making  the  circuit  of  the  basement,  the 
main  is  carried  to  a  point  as  near  to  the  boiler  as  is  possible.  At 
this  point  a  reducing  elbow  is  placed  on  the  end  of  the  main,  re- 
ducing one  or  two  sizes.  Connection  is  then  made  with  return 
opening  of  boiler.  This  reducing  elbow  should  be  tapped  for  an 
air  vent  and  an  automatic  air  vent  be  placed  on  the  same. 

As  the  main  acts  as  a  steam  reservoir  to  supply  the  various 
radiators,  it  is  well  to  free  it  of  all  air,  in  order  that  the  steam  may 
be  supplied  to  all  radiators  at  the  same  time,  thus  allowing  them  to 


^-BRANCH 


ELBOW 


FIG.  108. — Branching  from  main  with  45°  elbow. 


heat  uniformly.  The  automatic  air  vent  placed  on  the_  elbow 
at  the  end  of  the  main  accomplishes  this  purpose. 

The  various  branches  should  be  taken  from  the  main  by  the  use 
of  a  nipple  and  a  45-degree  elbow,  as  shown  by  Fig.  108.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  branches  should  be  one  size  larger  than  the  vertical 
pipe  or  "  spud  "  supplying  the  radiator  valve,  or  one  size  larger 
than  the  risers  which  they  feed. 

Most  of  the  old-time  steam  fitters,  as  well  as  many  fitters  of  the 
present  day,  make  a  practice  of  taking  the  connection  for  branch 
from  the  top  of  the  main.  This  practice  is  wrong,  as  the  con- 
densation returning  through  the  branch  to  the  main  drops  directly 
into  the  steam  supply,  saturating  and  cooling  it.  Fig.  109  illus- 


106     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


trates  this.  We  may  add,  for  example,  that  a  main  where  all  the 
branches  are  taken  off  with  the  use  of  45-degree  elbows,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  108,  will  do  25$  more  work,  and  prove  25$  more  economi- 
cal than  if  taken  off  main  from  the  top. 

Fig.  108  also  shows  how  the  water  of  condensation  joins  that  in 
the  main  without  interference  with  the  steam,  when  45-degree  el- 
bows are  used. 

The  main  on  a  circuit  job  of  heating  should  not  be  reduced  in 
size,  but  should  be  carried  full  size  to  point  where  air  vent  is  used, 
The  principal  reason  for  this  is  that  it  is  constantly  being  reduced 


^-BRANCH 


""-WfELBOW 


^NIPPLE 


MII 


FIG.  109.— Branching  from  main  with  90°  elbow. 

in  area  by  the  water  of  condensation  from  the  various  radiators 
entering  it,  so  that  its  area  at  the  end  may  not  be  more  than  one 
half  the  full  capacity  of  the  pipe. 

The  branches  should  have  a  pitch  upward  from  main  of  at  least 
1"  in  5  feet  of  length,  and  a  greater  pitch  is  desirable.  Special 
elbows,  called  pitch  elbows,  for  use  on  end  of  branch,  in  order  to 
throw  the  vertical  spud  or  riser  straight,  may  be  purchased  from 
those  who  deal  in  steam-fitting  supplies. 

Where  the  circuit  system  can  be  used  to  advantage,  we  would 
recommend  it  on  account  of  its  utility  and  good  appearance.  For 


STEAM-HEATING    APPARATUS 


107 


an  L-shaped  building,  it  is  necessary  to  take  a  separate  loop  from 
the  main  circuit,  as  shown  by  Fig.  110;  otherwise  the  work  is 
similar  to  the  single  loop. 


FIG.  110. — Circuit  system  of  steam  heating  with  loop. 

The  Divided  Circuit  System 

When  installing  a  steam-heating  apparatus  in  a  long  building 
where  the  boiler  is  located  near  the  center  of  the  basement,  and 
on  either  side  of  the  same,  we  may  use  what  is  called  the  Divided 


108     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

Circuit  System,  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  111.  The  convenience  of 
installing  this  system  can  be  readily  seen  from  the  illustration.  In 
installing  this  system  and  also  the  Single  Circuit,  it  is  well  to  keep 
the  end  of  mains  at  least  14"  above  the  water  line  of  the  boiler. 
With  the  Divided  Circuit  System  it  is  necessary  that  an  auto- 
matic air  vent  be  placed  on  the  end  of  each  loop.  The  returns 
should  be  connected  together  below  the  water  line  of  the  boiler,  as 
shown  by  illustration. 

The  One-pipe  System— Dry  Returns 

When  it  is  necessary  to  install  steam  heat  in  a  long,  narrow 
building,  such  as  one  side  of  a  double  house,  where  the  radiators 
are  all  placed  along  the  outside  wall,  this  system,  as  illustrated  by 
Fig.  112,  is  particularly  adaptable.  The  flow  pipes,  as  shown, 
pitch  downward  from  the  boiler  to  end  of  main.  On  the  end  of 
main  a  reducing  elbow  is  placed.  Into  this  elbow  is  connected  a 
close  nipple  with  a  90-degree  elbow  on  the  end  of  same,  and  from 
this  elbow  the  return  is  taken  dry  to  the  boiler,  as  shown.  These 
elbows  should  be  "  thrown  "  or  turned  upward  until  the  top  of  the 
return  is  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  main,  in  order  to  gain  head 
room.  A  short  piece  of  pipe,  with  crooked  thread  on  one  end, 
should  be  used  in  starting  the  return;  the  longer  pipe  should  be 
attached  to  this  piece  with  an  ordinary  coupling.  In  this  manner 
the  return  may  be  taken  to  boiler  almost  directly  under  and  par- 
allel to  the  main,  making  a  good  appearing  and  workmanlike  job. 

At  a  point  near  the  boiler,  elbows  should  be  placed  on  end  of 
returns  and  drop  made  to  return  opening  of  boiler.  These  elbows 
should  be  tapped  for  air  vent  and  automatic  air  vents  placed  on 
same. 

Note  the  coil  shown  on  illustration.  All  pipe  coils  should  be 
connected  "  two  pipe  "  with  return  connected  below  the  water  line 
of  the  boiler. 

The  Overhead  System 

The  Overhead  System  of  steam  heating  is  necessarily  a  combina- 
tion of  the  one  and  two  pipe  systems  and  it  may  have  either  a 
wet  or  a  dry  return,  although  the  wet  return  is  by  far  preferable. 
We  illustrate  by  Fig.  113  an  adaptation  of  the  overhead  system 


STEAM-HEATING    APPARATUS 


109 


110      PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


STEAM-HEATING    APPARATUS 


111 


and  show  the  many  different  methods  by  which  the  radiators  may 
be  connected. 


The  riser  or  risers  (there  may  be  more  than  one)  rise  directly 
to  the  top  floor  or  attic  of  the  building  and  here  branch  in  the 
several  directions  necessary  to  feed  the  various  drop  risers  sup- 
plying the  radiators.  The  branches  connecting  these  risers  are 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


IP 


STEAM-HEATING    APPARATUS  113 

taken  from  the  side  of  the  main.  Should  it  be  necessary  to  run  the 
main  any  considerable  distance  from  the  boiler  in  the  basement  be- 
fore rising  to  top  of  building,  it  is  well  to  "  heel  drip  "  the  elbow 
at  bottom  of  the  riser  and  connect  the  drip  with  the  wet  return. 

At  the  left  of  the  illustration  in  the  basement  we  show  one 
method  of  creating  a  false  water  line,  in  order  that  the  returns 
from  risers  in  an  unexcavated  portion  of  the  basement  may  be  con- 
nected into  a  wet  return^  We  shall  in  a  later  chapter  illustrate  and 
describe  the  false  water  line  more  fully. 

At  the  right  of  the  illustration  we  show  in  the  basement  a 
wall  radiator  for  heating  a  basement  room,  which  is  warmed  par- 
tially by  steam,  above  the  water  line  of  the  boiler,  and  partially 
by  the  water  of  condensation,  below  the  water  line  of  the  boiler  and 
is  connected  in  such  a  manner,  without  valves,  that  it  might  be 
designated  as  a  cooling  coil.  The  illustration  shown  is  composed 
of  three  sections  of  wall  radiation,  although  a  pipe  coil  could  be 
used  in  the  same  manner. 

The  Two-pipe  System 

Illustrated  by  Fig.  114  we  show  the  Two-pipe  System  of  steam 
heating.  This  system  has  been  discarded  generally  on  ordinary 
work,  being  succeeded  by  the  One-pipe  System,  although  it  still 
has  some  adherents  among  the  fitters. 

Smaller  piping  for  both  flow  and  returns  and  flow  and  return 
risers  is  used  for  this  system  than  for  either  of  those  already  de- 
scribed. The  cost  of  installation  will,  however,  exceed  that  of  either 
style  of  the  single-pipe  systems.  It  is  customary  when  using  the 


FIG.  115.— Eccentric  fittings— the  right  method. 

two-pipe  system,  to  reduce  the  size  of  the  main  as  the  various 
radiators  are  taken  off.  We  would  caution  against  reducing  the 
main  too  rapidly,  as  so  much  friction  would  result  that  it  would 
be  necessary  to  carry  a  considerable  pressure  at  the  boiler  in  order 
to  supply  the  radiators  at  the  far  end  of  the  system  and  this 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


would  thereby  destroy  the  economical  features  of  the  job.  When- 
ever the  main  is  reduced,  a  tee  should  be  used  and  a  drip  con- 
nected to  return,  or,  what  is  better,  eccentric  fittings  should  be  used, 


FIG.  116. — Common  fittings — the  wrong  method. 


as  shown  by  Fig.  115.  Unless  this  course  is  pursued,  the  water  of 
condensation  will  lodge  in  the  main  (see  Fig.  116)  and  cause 
"  water  hammer  "  or  pounding  in  the  piping. 

Advantages  of  Steam  Heating 

The  advantages  of  steam  heating  over  other  systems,  not  consid- 
ering the  patented  vacuum  or  vapor  systems,  are:  (1)  there  is  less 
liability  of  damage  by  frost;  (2). smaller  radiators  and  piping  are 
used ;  (3)  rooms  are  more  quickly  warmed  and  cooled,  and  (4)  where 
a  system  of  ventilation  is  used,  the  air  is  more  quickly  purified. 

By  the  use  of  automatic  damper  regulators,  safety  valves,  etc., 
the  danger  of  explosion  has  been  practically  eliminated,  so  that 
now  steam  may  be  used  with  as  great  a  degree  of  safety  as  any 
other  system. 

TABLE  XI 
SIZES  OF  STEAM  MAINS 


ONE-PIPE   SYSTEM. 

TWO-PIPE   SYSTEM. 

Size  of  Steam  Main. 

Size  of 
Main 

Radiation  Supplied. 

Radiation  Supplied. 

Flow. 

Return. 

U4" 

2" 

125  to     250  sc 
250  to     400 

!•' 

t. 

\w 

2" 

w 

\y<? 

250  to     400  s 
400  to     650 

q.l 

t. 

*w 

400  to     650 

24" 

2" 

650  to     900 

3" 

650  to     900 

8* 

24" 

900  to  1,200 

34" 

900  to  1  ,200 

34" 

3" 

1,200  to  1.600 

4" 

1,200  to  1,600 

4" 

3" 

1,600  to  2,000 

44" 

1,600  to  2,000 

44" 

34" 

2,000  to  2.500 

5" 

2,000  to  2,500 

5" 

4" 

2,500  to  3.500 

6" 

2,500  to  3,500 

6" 

44" 

3,500  to  5.000 

1" 

3,500  to  5.000 

7" 

5"~ 

5,000  to  6.500 

8" 

5,000  to  6,500 

'. 

8* 

6" 

6,500  to  8,000 

CHAPTER    XII 

Exhaust  Steam  Heating 

WHILE  exhaust  steam  for  many  years  has  been  used  for  heat- 
ing factories,  its  use  in  heating  office  and  public  buildings,  stores, 
etc.,  may  be  said  to  cover  a  period  of  probably  the  past  ten  years. 
We  mean  by  this  its  general  use,  as  in  the  larger  cities  it  has  been 
more  or  less  employed  for  the  past  score  of  years. 

Of  later  years  numerous  improvements  have  been  made  in  utiliz- 
ing and  controlling  the  steam,  both  live  and  exhaust,  and  the  heat- 
ing contractor  or  engineer  who  does  not  familiarize  himself  with 
these  new  and  improved  methods  is  neglecting  a  very  important 
part  of  his  business  education. 

We  now  desire  to  treat  only  of  the  value  and  utility  of  using 
the  exhaust  from  the  engine  and  the  ordinary  method  of  applying 
the  same  for  heating  purposes.  The  improved  methods  will  be 
found  illustrated  and  described  in  a  later  chapter  of  this  book. 

Value  of  Exhaust  Steam 

It  is  a  lamentable  fact  that  in  many  factories  and  business  build- 
ings a  very  great  percentage  of  the  steam  from  the  engines  is  al- 
lowed to  exhaust  into  the  outside  atmosphere.  We  think  we  are 
perfectly  safe  in  saying  that  over  50^  of  the  steam  produced  by 
the  boilers  is  thus  wasted.  Could  the  value  of  this  waste  be  brought 
directly  and  forcibly  to  the  attention  of  the  owners,  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  be  thoroughly  understood  by  them,  without  doubt  they 
would  lose  no  time  in  taking  such  steps  as  would  be  necessary  to 
stop  the  loss.  The  amount  of  steam  used  by  the  average  non- 
condensing  engine  is  but  about  from  7^/2/^  to  10^  of  the  amount 
produced  by  the  boiler;  in  other  words,  the  steam  exhausted  from 
the  engine  has  practically  90^  of  its  original  energy  and  value. 

Should  the  exhaust  be  employed  in  supplying  a  feed-water  heater, 

115 


116     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

five  per  cent  more  should  be  deducted,  leaving  eighty-five  per  cent 
of  the  original  amount  available  for  heating  purposes  or  other  uses. 

Many  concerns  do  not  make  a  practice  of  heating  their  feed 
water,  although  some  of  them  discharge  their  exhaust  into  an  open 
well  or  tank  and  thus  warm  the  water  supply  that  is  pumped  to  the 
boiler. 

Steam  specialties  such  as  feed-water  heaters,  separators,  steam 
traps,  etc.,  will  usually  pay  for  themselves  by  their  saving  in 
one  or  two  seasons,  and,  when  the  excess  steam  is  utilized  for 
heating,  the  saving  will  equal  about  one  half  of  the  usual  coal  pile. 
When  there  is  not  a  sufficient  amount  of  exhaust  steam  to  supply 
the  heating  system,  the  piping  may  be  so  arranged  that  enough 
live  steam  may  be  introduced  into  the  heating  system  to  make 
up  the  deficiency.  There  are  many  methods  of  arranging  the 
piping  and  fixtures  for  making  use  of  exhaust  steam.  We  show 
one  of  them  in  the  illustration,  Fig.  117. 

Necessary  Fixtures 

In  connecting  the  exhaust  to  supply  the  heating  system,  care 
must  be  exercised  not  to  increase  the  resistance  and  thus  cause 
back  pressure  on  the  engine.  A  back  pressure  of  from  one  to  three 
pounds  may  be  readily  overcome  by  a  slight  increase  of  pressure 
at  the  boiler.  A  steam  main  of  generous  size  for  the  heating  sys- 
tem, as  free  from  right-angle  turns  (elbows),  or  bends,  as  pos- 
sible, is  recommended,  and  a  back-pressure  valve  should  be  placed 
on  the  exhaust  pipe  a  considerable  distance  from  the  engine.  The 
engine  delivers  steam  into  the  exhaust  intermittently,  that  is,  at  the 
end  of  each  stroke,  the  engine  governor  admitting  only  sufficient 
steam  to  the  engine  for  the  work  required  of  it.  It  may  be  "  run- 
ning light  "  with  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  machinery  in  the 
factory  in  use.  Thus  the  amount  of  exhaust  steam  delivered  to  the 
heating  system  may  not  be  sufficient,  in  which  case  a  supply  of  live 
steam  is  admitted  to  it.  This  steam  supply  is  admitted  at  a  re- 
duced pressure,  hence  a  reducing-pressure  valve  is  necessary  on  the 
live  steam  connection.  A  valve  partially  open  or  "  throttled " 
may  be  used,  but  it  is  much  better  to  have  a  reducing  valve  set  to 
reduce  to  the  pressure  required. 


EXHAUST    STEAM    HEATING 


117 


HHHHHHHHHHHHHI 


118     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

In  the  exhaust  as  delivered  by  the  engine,  there  is  considerable 
water,  which  is  more  or  less  filled  with  particles  of  lubricating  oil, 
small  particles  of  dirt  and  packing.  This  must  be  removed  before 
the  steam  is  admitted  to  the  heating  system ;  consequently  a  sepa- 
tor  which  will  separate  both  oil  and  water  is  placed  on  the  exhaust 
pipe  before  it  is  connected  to  the  heating  system.  A  small  drip 
pipe  or  waste  should  be  connected  from  the  bottom  of  the  separator 
to  a  trap,  which  will  discharge  outside  the  building  or  to  a  sewer. 
Were  it  not  for  this  separator  the  oil,  etc.,  in  the  exhaust  would 
pass  through  the  return  of  the  heating  system  to  the  pump  or 
trap  feeding  the  boiler.  This  must  be  guarded  against.  Refer- 
ence to  Fig.  117  will  show  in  general  the  fixtures  used  and  method 
of  connecting  the  same. 

The  exhaust  may  be  taken  direct  from  the  engine  to  a  large 
closed  tank,  which  is  provided  with  baffle  plates  for  separating  the 
oil  and  other  impurities  from  the  steam.  This  is  called  a  "  grease 
tank  "  and  a  drip  should  be  taken  from  the  bottom  to  a  trap  empty- 
ing to  sewer  in  the  same  manner  as  though  taken  from  a  separator, 
as  before  described.  A  relief  pipe  may  be  used,  connecting  the  tank 
with  back-pressure  valve.  This  tank  should  be  placed  at  the  top 
of  the  heating  system,  and  from  it  connection  to  heating  main 
should  be  made. 

Different  engineers  have  various  methods  of  making  connec- 
tions. We  have  found  that  it  is  well  to  have  the  heating  main 
connected  as  high  above  the  engine  as  possible.  An  overhead  sup- 
ply or  overhead  system  is  preferable  to  all  others.  When  con- 
necting valves  and  fixtures,  it  is  well  to  make  frequent  and  gen- 
erous use  of  flanges,  as  these  will  be  found  of  great  convenience 
when  changing  valves  or  making  repairs. 

Heating  Capacity  of  Exhaust  Steam 

For  estimating  the  amount  of  exhaust  steam  available  from  a 
certain  size  of  engine,  many  rules,  more  or  less  complicated,  have 
been  given  by  various  authorities.  For  the  practical  use  of  the 
fitter  would  say  a  safe  rule  is  to  allow  from  100  to  125  feet  of 
direct  radiation  (pipe  and  fittings  covered,  or  figured  as  radiation) 
per  H.  P.  of  the  engine.  Thus  a  100  H.  P.  engine,  working  to  its 


EXHAUST    STEAM    HEATING  119 

regular  capacity,  should  exhaust  sufficient  steam  to  heat  the  nec- 
essary feed-water  for  the  boiler  or  boilers  and  have  sufficient  excess 
to  heat  10,000  sq.  ft.  of  direct  radiation. 

Of  the  character  of  steam  appliances  or   specialties  we  shall 
treat  in  a  future  chapter. 


CHAPTER    XIII 
Hot-water  Heating 

THE  growth  of  hot-water  heating  in  this  country,  as  a  means 
of  warming  our  homes,  has  been  little  short  of  phenomenal.  The 
personal  experience  of  the  writer,  covering  a  little  less  than  twenty 
years,  shows  that,  where  twenty  years  ago  for  residence  heating 
there  were  four  or  five  times  as  many  steam  boilers  installed  as 
there  were  hot-water  heaters,  at  this  period  the  great  percentage 
is  in  favor  of  hot  water.  While  we  have  no  accurate  data  on  the 
subject,  the  records  of  two  or  three  manufacturers  of  heaters  show 
a  ratio  of  about  ten  or  eleven  to  one  in  favor  of  hot  water. 

Steam  is,  as  a  rule,  used  for  heating  factories,  business  build- 
ings, public  and  semipublic  buildings,  although  for  this  class  of 
work  hot  water  is  beginning  to  be  more  generally  employed. 

There  are  two  general  systems  of  hot-water  warming,  namely, 
"  low  pressure  "  and  "  high  pressure."  It  is  the  former  method 
which  is  in  general  use.  Low-pressure  hot-water  heating  has  many 
advantages  to  recommend  it  for  residence  work. 

Very  little  attention  to  the  apparatus  is  required,  aside  from 
coaling  the  heater  and  removing  the  ashes.  /This  is  of  considerable 
importance,  however,  as  the  man  or  men  of  the  family  may  fre- 
quently be  compelled  to  absent  themselves  from  home  for  extended 
periods  and  the  care  of  the  heating  apparatus  be  left  to  inexperi- 
enced hands. 

Hot-water  heat  is  very  easily  controlled  and  an  even  tempera- 
ture can  be  readily  maintained.  Regulators  are  now  used  with 
hot-water  apparatus,  and  it  is  possible  to  so  adjust  these  that  any 
desired  temperature  can  be  maintained  within  the  rooms. 

As  to  consumption  of  fuel,  the  hot-water  apparatus  is  the  most 
economical  of  any  of  the  various  heating  systems. 

As  the  average  hot-water  apparatus  works  at  a  temperature 
ranging  from  100  to  120  degrees  in  mild  weather,  and  from  160  to 

120 


HOT-WATER    HEATING 

180  degrees  in  cold  weather,  the  heat  from  it  is  very  mild  and  the  at- 
mosphere is  not  robbed  of  any  of  its  healthy  qualities.  Some  years 
ago  it  was  customary  to  maintain  a  temperature  of  from  180  to  21£ 
degrees.  Experience  has  demonstrated  that  the  greatest  economy 
and  most  satisfactory  heat  are  obtained  by  carrying  the  water  at  a 
much  lower  temperature,  and  the  heating  contractor  of  to-day,  as 
a  rule,  places  sufficient  radiation  in  the  building  to  warm  the  same 
with  the  water  at  the  lower  temperature. 

Low-pressure  hot-water  heating  may  be  divided  into  three  sys- 
tems, or  methods  of  piping,  viz. : 

(a)    The  regular  two-pipe  system. 

(6)   The  overhead  system. 

(c)   The  single  main  or  circuit  style  of  piping. 

The  Two-pipe  System 

The  two-pipe  system  is  the  oldest  of  the  various  styles  of  pip- 
ing for  hot  water,  hence  is  best  understood  by  the  fitter  and  heating 
contractor,  and  is  more  generally  used  than  either  of  the  other 
systems. 

The  flow  pipe,  or  pipes,  of  sufficient  size  to  feed  the  necessary 
amount  of  radiation,  are  carried  to  such  a  height  above  the  heat^ 
as  to  allow  of  a  proper  pitch  of  the  main.  On  the  top  of  this 
riser  an  elbow  is  placed  and  the  lateral  pipe  or  main  is  run  with  a 
pitch  upward  of  from  one  half  to  one  inch  in  each  ten  feet  of  length 
to  the  end  of  the  system,  or  to  the  branch  supplying  the  radiator 
farthest  from  the  boiler. 

The  general  design  of  this  system  is  shown  by  Fig.  118.  We 
show  several  styles  of  radiator  connections,  and  attention  is  called 
to  the  manner  of  supplying  the  branch  at  the  end  of  the  main,  the 
elbow  on  the  end  being  tipped  to  an  angle  of  45°,  and  a  45°  elbow 
and  nipple  used  in  making  the  connection.  This  manner  of  con- 
necting the  branch  is  a  help  to  the  circulation  at  this  point  and 
the  radiator  will  heat  better  than  when  the  connection  is  made  with 
90°  elbows. 

All  tees  on  the  mains  supplying  branches  should  be  tipped  to 
an  angle  of  45  degrees  and  the  branch  supplied  by  using  a  nipple 
and  45°  elbow.  Many  fitters  seem  to  think  that  by  taking  branches 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


HOT-WATER    HEATING 


123 


1 

I 

'=. 

'5. 

•8 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


out  of  the  top  they  are  increasing  the  circulation,  but  such  is  not 
the  case,  as  every  90°  elbow  used  on  hot-water  work  increases  the 
friction  and  impedes  the  circulation.  Any  "  choking  "  of  the  cir- 
culation necessary  to  make  radiators  heat  uniformly  should  be  done 
by  using  a  reducing  elbow  at  the  end  of  the  branch.  Great  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  reduce  the  size  of  the  main  too  rapidly. 
Frequently  the  reducing  in  size  of  a  short  piece  of  pipe  between 
two  tees  supplying  branches,  has  "  killed  "  the  circulation  beyond 
the  point  of  reduction. 

As  a  better  means  of  understanding  this  system  we  show  by 
Fig.  119  a  basement  plan  of  the  cellar  piping  of  a  hot-water  ap- 
paratus. For  convenience  in  illustrating  we  have  shown  branches 
taken  from  top  of  main;  4$°  connections  are  preferable,  as  ex- 
plained above.  Where  the  flow  pipe  is  divided  in  order  to  feed 
radiators  in  opposite  directions,  it  is  well  to  use  double  elbows. 
See  Fig.  120.  In  fact,  this  fitting  should  be  employed  on  all  pip- 
ing either  for  steam  or  hot  water.  The  tee  as  used  "  bull  head  " 
not  only  increases  the  friction  but  frequently  is  the  means  of  caus- 
ing an  uneven  circulation  in  the  piping  supplied  by  it. 

TABLE   XII 

SIZES  OF  MAINS  —  TWO-PIPE  HOT-  WATER  SYSTEM 


Size  of  Main. 

Radiation  Supplied. 

\V<£ 

125  to      175  s 
175  to      300 
300  to      475 
475  to      700 
700  to  1,000 
1,000  to  1,400 
1,400  to  1,750 
1,750  to  2,200 
2,200  to  3,000 

q-  f 

t. 

1" 

2W           

s*r  

314".  .  . 

4" 

#4"    ... 

5"  

6"  

There  seems  to  be  quite  a  difference  of  opinion  among  heating 
engineers  as  to  the  size  of  mains  necessary  for  hot-water  heating, 
many  of  them  advocating  much  smaller  piping  than  is  given  in  the 
above  table;  that  is,  they  increase  the  amount  of  radiation  a  cer- 
tain size  of  pipe  will  supply  by  from  one  third  to  one  half  of  the 
amount  as  given  above. 


HOT-WATER    HEATING  125 

In  an  experience  covering  nearly  a  score  of  years  the  writer 
lias  used  both  large  and  small  piping,  and  we  find  that  while  the 
character  of  the  work  to  a  great  extent  governs  the  size  of  pipe 
to  be  used,  it  is  well  to  be  generous  in  the  size  of  piping,  par- 
ticularly for  the  main  supply  pipes.  For  all  ordinary  two-pipe 


FIG.  120.— The  double  elbow. 

work  we  consider  the  sizes  as  given  in  the  schedule  conservative. 
Friction  should  be  avoided  and  as  the  friction  in  a  horizontal  pipe 
is  much  greater  than  in  a  vertical  pipe,  the  horizontal  pipe  must 
of  necessity  be  larger  than  the  vertical  to  accomplish  the  same 
service. 

The  Expansion  Tank 

As  water  heated  to  180  or  212  degrees  expands  from  one 
twenty-fourth  to  one  thirtieth  of  its  volume,  it  is  necessary  on 
hot-water  work  to  make  some  provision  for  the  increased  volume 
of  water  and  for  this  purpose  we  make  use  of  a  tank,  which  we 
call  an  "  expansion  tank."  There  are  several  methods  of  connect- 
ing this  tank  with  the  hot-water  system.  It  should,  however,  in 
each  instance  be  located  at  least  three  feet  above  the  highest  radia- 
tor on  the  system  and  the  expansion  pipe  should  be  connected 
to  the  return  pipe  of  the  radiator.  The  vent  pipe  leading  from 
the  top  of  the  tank  should  be  carried  through  the  roof  above  the 
tank,  or  through  the  side  of  the  building  into  the  outside  atmos- 
phere. This  vent  pipe  may  also  be  used  as  the  overflow;  in  case 
the  system  overflows  by  reason  of  being  filled  too  full,  the  excess 
water  will  empty  on  the  roof  or  outside  the  building. 

When  the  expansion  tank  is  placed  in  the  bathroom  of  a  resi- 
dence, many  fitters  make  a  practice  of  carrying  the  overflow  into 


126     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

the  closet  tank,  while  others  take  the  pipe  to  a  basement  drain. 
The  former  method  is  poor  practice,  and  the  latter  a  waste  of  mate- 
rial entirely  unnecessary. 

By  Fig.  121  we  show  the  simplest  form  of  connecting  the  ex- 
pansion tank.  When  this  style  of  connection  is  used,  the  tank  must 
be  located  in  a  room  which  is  heated,  or  where  there  is  no  liability 
of  freezing. 


VENT  PIPB 


/ 
PIPE 


RETURN  FROM 
HIGHEST 
RADIATOR, 


GAUGE 


FLOW  AND  RETURN 
CONNECTED  TO  HIGHEST  RADIATOR 


FIG.  122. — Connecting  ex- 
pansion tank  —  circulat- 
ing water  to  tank. 


FIG.  121. — Connecting  expansion  tank- 
common  method. 


Fig.  122  shows  a  method  of  tank  connection  where  the  water  is- 
circulated  to  the  tank  or  directly  underneath  it.  In  employing  this 
style  of  connection,  one  pipe  must  be  connected  to  the  flow  and 
the  other  to  the  return  pipe  of  one  of  the  highest  radiators  on  the 
system.  When  it  is  necessary  to  place  the  tank  in  a  cold  room 
or  an  exposed  place,  we  recommend  the  connection  as  shown  by 
Fig.  123.  We  also  recommend  that  nothing  less  than  V  pipe 


HOT-WATER    HEATING 


127 


be  used  for  the  connections.     With  this  method  the  water  in  the 
tank  is  circulated  or  warmed.     Either  of  the  latter  two  methods 


.OVERFLOW 


WATER  SUPPLY 


FIG.  123. — Connecting  expansion  tank — circulating  water  in  tank. 

of  connection  will  prove  of  assistance  in  keeping  air  out  of  the 
system. 


Overflow 


^ 
FIG.  124. — Automatic  expansion  tank. 

A  later  style  of  expansion  tank  and  one  which  has  met  with 
favor  is  the  automatic  expansion  tank  which  operates  with  a  ball 


128     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


cock,  and  float.  Fig.  124  shows  an  interior  view  of  the  tank.  It 
is  made  of  wood  and  has  a  copper  lining.  They  are  also  constructed 
of  steel  and  of  a  form  similar  in  appearance  to  the  regular  style 
of  tank.  That  illustrated  has  much  the  appearance  of  the  regular 
closet  tank  and  when  placed  in  a  bathroom  or  other  occupied  room 
is  commendable  for  its  neat  appearance.  No  valves  of  any  de- 
scription should  be  placed  on  any  of  the  expansion-tank  connec- 
tions. They  are  not  only  unnecessary,  but  are  liable  to  be  closed  (by 
error)  and  the  system  thereby  be  put  under  pressure,  with  liability 
to  damage  by  explosion. 

Water  Connection 

The  water  connection  to  a  hot-water  heating  apparatus  should 
be  made  by  connecting  into  the  return  pipe  at  the  rear  of  the  boiler. 
Where  there  is  no  regular  water  supply  and  it  is  necessary  to  fill 
the  system  by  hand  or  with  a  pump,  the  connection  must  of  neces- 
sity be  made  at  the  tank  or  the  top  of  the  system. 

Table  of  Expansion-tank  Sizes 

The  following  table  gives  the  proper  size  of  expansion  tank  for 
any  hot-water  heating  apparatus  up  to  6,000  sq.  ft.  of  radiation. 

TABLE  XIII 


Capacity. 

Size. 

300  sq.  ft.  rad 

ation 

10  gal. 

12X20" 

500 

15 

12X30" 

700 

20 

14X30" 

950 

26 

16X30" 

1,300 

32 

16X36" 

2,000 

42 

16X48" 

3,000 

66 

18X60" 

5,000 

82 

20X60" 

6,000 

100 

22X60" 

The  Overhead  System 

A  style  of  piping  for  hot  water  which,  when  it  has  been  prop- 
erly erected,  has  met  with  much  favor,  is  the  so-called  "  overhead 
system."  We  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  it  is  the  best  method 
of  hot-water  piping  in  use  to-day,  and  while  it  is  not  adaptable 


HOT-WATER    HEATING 


129 


130     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

to  all  classes  of  buildings,  there  are  many,  such  as  flat  or  apart- 
ment buildings,  store  and  office  buildings,  hotels  or  factories,  where 
the  character  of  construction,  manner  of  dividing  the  space  into 
living  rooms,  offices,  etc.,  render  the  overhead  system  particularly 
serviceable.  There  are  many  advantages  to  be  gained  by  the  use 
of  this  system,  the  principal  one  being  that  but  one  riser  or  drop 
pipe  is  necessary  for  supplying  a  line  of  radiators,  and  also  that 
the  circulation  of  the  water  is  both  positive  and  rapid.  No  air 
vents  are  necessary  at  any  point  on  the  system,  as  the  piping 
is  so  arranged  that  all  air  works  to  the  top  of  the  system  into 
the  expansion  tank  and  through  this  to  the  atmosphere,  thus 
keeping  the  system  free  from  air  at  all  times  and  as  the  removal 
of  air  from  the  heating  system  is  one  of  the  great  troubles  of 
the  steam  fitter,  much  good  has  been  accomplished  by  this  alone. 


MAIN 


DROP  RISER. — 


FIG.  126. — The  overhead  system  branch  from  main. 

In  illustrating  this  system  (Fig.  125)  we  showr  in  detail  some  of 
the  many  methods  of  connecting  the  radiators  and  the  general 
mode  of  piping.  The  main  flow  pipe  is  taken  from  the  top  of  the 
heater,  as  with  the  regular  two-pipe  system,  and  run  to  some  con- 
venient point  to  allow  it  to  be  run  vertically  to  the  attic  or  top 
floor  of  the  building.  This  should  be  the  high  point  of  the  system 
and  from  this  point  the  connection  to  the  expansion  tank  should 
be  made.  From  the  top  of  the  main  riser,  the  various  branch  mains 
are  run.  These  have  a  drop  of  at  least  one  half  inch  in  each 
ten  feet  of  length  and  from  these  mains  the  branches  supplying 
the  drop  risers  are  taken.  Those  shown  on  Fig.  125  are  taken 
out  of  the  side  of  the  main.  We  favor  a  45°  connection  as  shown 
by  Fig.  126.  The  size  of  the  drop  risers  depends  entirely  upon 


HOT-WATER    HEATING 


131 


the  amount  of  radiation  fed  by  them.  As  a  rule,  they  should  be 
larger  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  reducing  gradually  as  the 
various  radiators  are  supplied.  The  radiator  connections  from 
the  risers  should  be  smaller  at  the  top  of  the  building,  increasing 
in  size  (the  same  size  of  radiators  considered)  toward  the  bottom 
of  the  riser. 


FIG.  127.— The  O.  S.  distribu- 
ting fitting. 


FIG.  129. — Straightway  valve 
with  union. 


FIG.  128.— Application  of  O.  S.  distributing  fitting. 


In  the  basement  the  risers  are  connected  into  returns  in  the 
same  manner  as  with  the  regular  two-pipe  system,  these  returns 
being  increased  in  size  as  the  various  branches  are  connected  until 
finally  the  water  is  returned  to  the  boiler  through  approximately 
the  same  size  of  pipe  as  the  main  riser. 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


An  advantage  where  this  system  is  used  and  one  which  should 
not  be  overlooked,  is  the  ability  to  circulate  the  water  through 


Branch  out  of" Tee- 


Main 


Return        pIG    ^39 — Connecting  radiator  on  a  level  with  heater. 


and  supply  heat  to  radiators  located  on  the  same  floor  as  the  heater, 
or  even  lower  than  it.     This  is  by  reason  of  the  weight   of  the 


X 


FIG.  131. — Connecting  radiator  on  a  level  with  heater. 


HOT-WATER    HEATING 


133 


water  or  pressure  on  the  system,  there  being  one  pound  pressure 
for  each  two  feet  of  height  of  the  water  in  the  system.  We  have 
shown  by  Fig.  125  several  methods  of  using  the  ordinary  tees  on 
the  riser  from  which  connections  to  radiators  are  made.  We  also 
show  on  the  two  risers,  at  the  right  hand  of  the  illustration,  a 
special  fitting  (Fig.  127)  known  as  the  "  O.  S."  fitting  and  we 
commend  it  to  the  use  of  all  heating  contractors  as  an  aid  to  the 
reduction  of  friction  and  a  quickening  of  the  circulation,  and  also 
on  account  of  the  labor  saved  by  its  use.  In  order  that  it  may 
be  better  understood,  we  show  an  enlarged  riser  (Fig.  128),  illus- 
trating two  radiators  connected  by  the  use  of  this  fitting. 

A  style  of  radiator  valve  which  is  particularly  adaptable  for 
use  with  this  system  is  shown  by  Fig.  129.     It  is  known  as  the 


FIG.  132.— Base  elbow. 

"  straightway  "  valve,  and  is  a  quick-opening  valve*  As  its  name 
indicates,  it  is  for  use  on  a  straight  pipe  or  connection.  When 
connecting  radiators  on  or  below  the  level  of  the  heater,  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  make  a  connection  which  will  get  air 
bound.  If  the  connection  is  taken  from  one  of  the  overhead 
return  pipes,  we  recommend  that  it  be  done  as  shown  by  Fig. 
130.  If  taken  from  the  drop  riser  it  should  be  connected  as 
shown  by  Fig.  131. 

The  sizes  of  mains  for  the  overhead  system  are  practically  the 
same  as  for  the  two-pipe  system,  although  the  main  riser  may  be 
somewhat  reduced  in  size.  When  this  riser  exceeds  3"  in  size, 
it  is  well  to  use  a  special  elbow  at  its  base  (Fig.  132).  This 
should  be  supported  by  a  brick  or  cement  pier,  in  order  to  relieve 
the  building  of  the  weight  of  water  in  this  portion  of  the  apparatus. 


134     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

Expansion  Tank  Connections 

The  expansion  tank  should  be  placed  somewhat  higher  than  the 
fitting  on  the  top  of  the  main  riser.  A  very  simple  method  of  con- 
necting the  tank  is  shown  by  Fig.  133.  The  tank  should  be  placed 
on  a  support  or  framework  of  sufficient  strength  to  make  it 
stationary.  No  gauge  on  the  tank  is  necessary,  although  many 
fitters  use  it. 

Another  method  is   that   shown  by  Fig.    134.      The  tank  is 


VENT  AND  OVERFLOW- 


EXPANSION  TANK 


FIG.  133. — Expansion  tank  connection — overhead  system. - 

suspended  in  a  horizontal  position  by  iron  straps  hung  from  the 
roof  timbers,  which  are  strengthened  sufficiently  to  support  the  ex- 
tra weight.  The  overflow  may  empty  into  a  pan,  from  which  there 
is  a  drip  to  the  sewer  in  the  basement.  As  is  the  case  with  the 
regular  two-pipe  system,  no  valves  should  be  placed  on  the  con- 
nections to  the  tank. 

There  are  several  modifications  of  the  overhead  system,  which 
lack  of  space  will  not  allow  us  to  illustrate.     There  is  one  method, 


HOT-WATER    HEATING 

n 


135 


VENT—- 


ROOF 


.  -  .i    - -z p ; -i 


FIG.  134. — Expansion  tank  connection  with  drip — overhead  system. 


EXPANSION  TANK  ^  (J/VENT  AND  OVERFLOW 


FIG.  135. — Modified  overhead  system. 


136     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

however,  which  we  should  be  familiar  writh.  It  is  frequently  nec- 
essary in  heating  a  store  or  small  building  to  place  both  boiler 
and  radiators  on  the  same  floor.  To  do  this  successfully,  the  main 
flow  pipe  should  be  run  on  the  ceiling  as  shown  by  Fig.  135.  The 
illustration  shows  an  elevation  plan  without  the  branch  connections. 
The  branches  should  be  taken  out  of  the  side  of  the  main.  The 
drop  pipes  supplying  radiators  should  be  connected  into  the  top 
of  one  end  of  the  radiator,  the  return  being  taken  from  the  bottom 
of  the  opposite  end.  The  expansion  tank  should  be  hung  horizon- 
tally from  the  ceiling,  with  vent  and  overflow  to  the  roof.  No  air 
vents  are  necessary,  as  all  air  in  the  system  works  out  through  the 
expansion  tank.  The  wrork  may  be  put  under  pressure,  if  desired, 
by  sealing  the  tank  and  using  a  safety  valve,  as  described  in  a 
later  chapter. 

The  Circuit  System  of  Hot-water  Heating 

The  circuit  system  commonly  called  the  "  single-main  system," 
has  in  the  past  few  years  gained  considerable  favor  among  heating 
contractors.  A  single  main  pipe,  which  also  acts  as  a  return, 
is  taken  from  the  top  of  heater  to  a  point  as  high  as  desired  under 
the  first  floor  joists.  From  this  point  the  connection  to  expansion 
tank  is  made.  This  main  pipe  is  then  run  around  the  basement, 
in  a  circuit,  near  to  the  ceiling  and  with  a  gradual  pitch  from 
the  heater,  wrhich  should  never  be  less  than  %  inch  in  each  10 
feet  of  length,  but  may  be  more,  if  desired.  This  main,  which 
is  of  extra  large  size,  supplies  all  of  the  branches  feeding  the  radia- 
tors on  the  first  floor  or  risers  to  the  floors  above.  The  flow  pipes 
or  branches  are  taken  from  the  top  of  the  main,  the  returns  enter- 
ing at  the  side. 

After  supplying  the  various  radiators,  the  main  is  run  directly 
back  to  the  heater,  where  it  drops  and  is  connected  into  the  return 
opening  of  the  same.  The  main  must  never  be  reduced,  but  should 
be  run  full  size  until  it  enters  the  return  of  the  heater. 

Illustration  Fig.  136  shows  a  general  view  of  this  system  of 
piping.  The  fittings  shown  on  the  main,  which  supply  branches, 
are  of  three  kinds.  Those  marked  A  A  are  the  regular  tee 
fittings;  those  marked  B  B  are  the  Eureka  fittings,  an  enlarged 
view  of  which  is  shown  by  Fig.  137.  This  is  a  single  fitting 


HOT-WATER    HEATING 


137 


138     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


used  for  connecting  both  flow  and  return,  the  flow  leaving  the 
top  of  the  main  and  the  return  entering  the  Bottom.  It  is  as 
easily  placed  as  the  regular  tee  and  the  saving  in  labor  and 
cutting  of  threads  is  considerable.  Those  marked  C  C  are  the 
O.  S.  fittings  for  use  on  single-main  work  and  they  divide  the 


Return 


Flow 


Return 


Flow 


Full  View  Sectional  View 

FIG.  137. — Eureka  combination  fitting. 

circulation  in  the  same  manner  as  the  regular  O.  S.  distributing 
fitting. 

Yet  another  style  of  fitting  for  use  on  the  main  of  a  circuit 
job  is  known  as  the  "  Phelps  Ideal  "  fitting,  as  illustrated  by  Fig. 
138.  This  fitting  is  quite  like  a  tee  with  side  outlet  tapped  eccen- 
tric. The  flow  is  taken  from  the  top  of  main  and  the  return  re- 


FIG.  138.— Phelps  combination  fitting. 

enters  it  at  the  side  on  a  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  main.  This 
is  a  much  better  fitting  to  use  than  the  regular  tee,  as  one  fitting 
on  the  main  does  the  work  of  two,  saving  thread  cutting  and  labor, 
and  it  also  has  the  advantage  of  delivering  the  return  circulation 
lower  down  in  the  main. 


HOT-WATER    HEATING  139 

The  branches  should  have  an  upward  pitch  from  main;  also, 
the  radiator  connections  are  made  the  same  as  for  the  regular  two- 
pipe  system. 

We  have  found  it  excellent  practice  on  work  of  any  considerable 
size  to  increase  the  size  of  the  radiators  somewhat,  that  are  con- 
nected on  the  last  two  sides  of  the  circuit.  The  water  in  the  main 
being  cooled  somewhat  before  it  reaches  this  part  of  the  system, 
it  is  necessary  to  provide  more  radiation  in  order  that  all  portions 
of  the  work  will  heat  evenly.  The  sizes  of  the  branches  may  be 
somewhat  smaller  nearest  the  boiler  than  those  toward  the  end 
of  the  main.  It  will  be  found  that  this  system  of  piping  will 
prove  most  efficient  and  acceptable  when  properly  proportioned 
and  erected. 

TABLE    XIV 
SIZE  OF  MAIN  FOR  OXE  PIPE — HOT  WATER 


Size  of  Main.                                                     Direct  Radiation  Supplied. 

2      indies                            .                           

175  sq 
300 
500 
700 
1,000 
1,200 
1,600  " 
2,200  " 

ft. 

: 
( 

M 

a 

&/,        "                                                 

3         " 

S1^      " 

4          " 

4U      " 

5          " 

6          " 

The  systems  of  low-pressure  hot-water  work  we  have  described 
and  illustrated  are  the  principal  forms  of  this  class  of  work.  There 
are  several  modifications  of  each,  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  de- 
scribe as  the  same  general  principles  of  piping,  etc.,  prevail.  Hav- 
ing detailed  the  character  of  this  work,  it  is  well  that  we  should  un- 
derstand the  principles  which  underlie  it,  and  will  therefore  treat 
briefly  on  the  cause  of  hot-water  circulation. 

Why  "Water  Circulates 

In  answering  the  question — What  causes  circulation? — we  say 
that  unquestionably  it  is  heat  which  causes  the  water  to  circulate  in 
a  hot-water  heating  system.  When  heating  by  hot  water  first  came 
into  general  use  in  the  United  States,  the  writer  was  taught  that 


140     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

water,  being  heated,  became  lighter  and  when  confined  in  a  heat- 
ing system  would  ascend  to  the  top  and  circulate  through  the  pip- 
ing and  radiators.  This  statement  was  a  gross  error,  although 
we  believed  it  at  the  time,  and  as  we  have  heard  the  same  state- 
ment made  many  times  since,  it  is  undoubtedly  a  very  common 
error.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  hot  water  will  move  only  when  there 
is  a  cooler  and  heavier  body  of  water  displacing  it  and  forcing 
it  upward,  and  were  it  not  for  the  difference  in  temperature  be- 
tween the  flow  and  return  pipes  of  a  hot-water  heating  system, 
there  would  be  no  circulation  at  all. 

Hot  water,  as  it  cools,  becomes  compact  and  outweighs  the 
warmer  water  in  the  heater,  causing  it  to  rise  in  the  system  and 
circulate  through  the  piping  and  radiators,  the  difference  in  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  water  as  it  ascends  and  descends  in  the- 
system  keeping  the  circulation  constant.  The  higher  the  water 
in  the  system,  the  more  rapid  the  circulation,  or,  stated  in  another 
form,  the  greater  the  height  of  the  return  pipe  (in  which  the 
cooler  water  is  descending),  the  more  energy  and  push  against 
the  warmer  water  in  the  heater  and  consequently  the  more  rapid 
the  circulation.  The  height  of  the  flow  riser  (the  ascending  water) 
makes  no  difference  in  the  rapidity  of  the  circulation  of  the  water 
in  the  apparatus,  except  as  the  height  of  the  return  is  increased. 
The  velocity  of  the  flow  of  water  in  a  heating  apparatus  depends 
upon  the  difference  in  weight  of  the  ascending  and  descending 
columns  of  water,  with  due  allowance  made  for  friction.  There  are 
several  methods  of  determining  theoretically  this  velocity.  How- 
ever, as  this  book  is  written  only  from  a  practical  standpoint,  we 
shall  not  burden  our  readers  with  a  discussion  of  these  theories. 


CHAPTER    XIV 

Pressure  Systems  of  Hot-water  Work 

THE  high-pressure  system  of  hot-water  heating  is  not,  as  a 
rule,  practiced  in  this  country.  In  England  we  find  it  used  for 
various  purposes,  such  as  laundry  dryers,  bake  ovens,  enameling, 
€tc.,  the  apparatus  carrying  from  250  to  350  degrees  temperature. 
The  piping  used  is  small  in  diameter  and  extra  strong,  or  extra 
heavy  in  weight.  The  fittings  used  are  also  much  heavier  than  it 
is  our  custom  to  use  on  heating  work.  This  system  was  designed 
and  used  originally  by  Mr.  A.  M.  Perkins,  of  London,  Eng.,  and 
is  known  as  the  "  Perkins  System." 

Pressure  work  as  practiced  in  this  country  (closed-tank  sys- 
tem), consists  of  sealing  the  outlets  of  the  expansion  tank,  thus 
putting  the  apparatus  under  pressure,  a  safety  valve  being  used 
on  the  overflow  at  the  tank  to  regulate  the  same.  On  ordinary 
work  it  is  seldom  that  a  pressure  exceeding  ten  pounds  is  em- 
ployed, the  water  in  the  apparatus  at  this  pressure  having  a  tem- 
perature of  about  240  degrees.  This  style  of  work  is  probably 
used  in  greenhouses  more  frequently  than  in  any  other  manner, 
and  among  its  advantages  are  the  use  of  less  radiation,  a  less 
volume  of  water  in  the  apparatus  and  a  more  quickly  controlled 
apparatus.  For  use  in  heating  dwellings  or  apartments  it  is 
objectionable  because  of  the  element  of  danger  connected  with  its 
operation.  Should  the  safety  valve  at  the  expansion  tank  become 
inoperative  from  any  cause,  an  explosion  would  be  the  probable 
result. 

We  have  known  heating  contractors  to  use  this  method  when 
they  find  that  too  little  radiation  had  been  installed  to  give  the 
temperature  required,  and  frequently  to  adopt  this  seeming  remedy 
without  giving  notice  to  or  obtaining  the  consent  of  the  owner  of 
the  property,  which  involves  not  only  a  dishonest,  but  a  very 

dangerous  practice  as  well. 

141 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


The  following  table  gives  the  temperatures  at  which  water  will 
boil  at  various  pressures  (atmospheric),  with  the  equivalent  head 
in  feet: 

TABLE  XV 


PRESSURE. 

Boiling  Point  (Degrees). 

Pounds  above  Atmosphere. 

Head  in  Feet. 

0 

0 

212 

5 

12 

228 

10 

24 

240 

15 

36 

250 

20 

48 

259 

25 

60 

267 

30 

72 

274 

35 

84 

280 

40 

96 

287 

45 

108 

292 

50 

120 

297 

60 

144 

307 

70 

168 

316 

80 

192 

324 

90 

2]6 

332 

100 

240 

338 

When  it  is  necessary  to  place  both  boiler  and  radiator  on  the 
same  floor,  as  is  showrn  by  Fig.  135  in  the  previous  chapter,  it  is 
sometimes  advantageous  to  put  the  work  under  a  moderate  pres- 
sure in  order  to  quicken  and  maintain  a  more  positive  circulation 
throughout  the  system. 

On  certain  work  of  this  character  it  is  sometimes  impossible 
to  run  the  overhead  piping  sufficiently  high  to  admit  of  a  free 
circulation  through  all  of  the  radiators,  those  farthest  from  the 
heater  not  working  as  well  as  those  placed  nearer  the  heater.  This 
is  readily  remedied  by  placing  the  system  under  sufficient  pressure 
to  maintain  a  free  circulation  in  all  parts  of  the  apparatus. 

Expansion-tank  Connections 

The  expansion-tank  connections  for  pressure  wrork  may  be 
made  in  the  same  manner  as  for  the  open-tank  system.  The  open- 
ing in  the  tank  used  for  air  vent  is  plugged  and  the  safety  valve, 
which  is  usually  of  the  lever  variety,  is  placed  on  the  overflow  pipe 
at  a  point  near  the  tank. 


PRESSURE    SYSTEMS    OF    HOT-WATER    WORK      143 


Where  a  vertical  tank  is  used,  the  connections  should  be  made 
as  shown  by  Fig.  139.     Where  a  horizontal  tank  is  used,  the  con- 


Safety  Valve 

I 


Air  Cushion 


— ^_- j  —  ____— 


Expansion/ 
Pipe  ' 


FIG.  139. — Expansion  tank  with  safety  valve. 

nections  should  be  made  as  shown  by  Fig.  140.     We  show  on  this 
illustration  the  use  of  a  vacuum  valve.     When  the  safety  valve 


-Vacuum  Valve 


Safety  Valve 


Overflow 


o 

0 
0 
0 
0 

o 

0 

—  o 

0 
0 
0 

o 

0 

o  ooooooooooooooooooooooooo  o  ooo 
o 
o 
o 

O  O  o1 

o 

0 

o 

o 

Expansion  Pipe 


FIG.  140. — Expansion  tank  with  safety  and  vacuum  valves. 


144     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


is  opened  from  excess  pressure,  trouble  is  frequently  experienced 
in  relieving  the  vacuum  at  this  point,  and  for  this  purpose  the 
vacuum  valve  is  used.  There  are  times,  however,  when  the  vacuum 
valve  does  not  relieve  the  vacuum,  due  probably  to  the  failure 
of  the  valve  to  operate.  A  very  simple  method  of  relieving  the 


,Check  Valve 


Overflo 


O 
0 
O 
O 
O 
O 
O 
O 
0 
O 
O 

oo  oooooooooo 


O   00 


Lr 


Expansion  Pipe 


FIG.  141. — Expansion  tank  with  method  of  relieving  vacuum. 

vacuum  without  the  use  of  a  valve  is  shown  by  Fig.  141.  It  con- 
sists of  a  check  valve  used  in  connection  with  the  safety  valve. 
The  connection  shown  from  the  check  valve  into  a  tee  placed  on 
the  overflow  pipe  is  made  for  the  purpose  of  discharging  any  water 
which  might  leak  through  the  check  valve. 

A  pressure  system  of  hot-water  heating  that  has  been  used  ex- 


PRESSURE    SYSTEMS    OF    HOT-WATER    WORK     145 

tensively  in  this  country  is  that  of  Evans  &  Almirall.  This  sys- 
tem is  only  applicable  to  large  work,  as  the  water  is  heated  by 
the  exhaust  steam  from  engines,  pumps  or  other  mechanism  requir- 
ing live  steam.  The  water  of  the  heating  system  is  passed  through 
a  tank  or  heater  constructed  in  much  the  same  manner  as  a  feed- 
water  heater.  Its  interior  is  filled  with  copper  tubes  through  which 
the  water  circulates  and  is  heated  by  the  exhaust  steam  which  is 
carried  through  the  heater  and  which  surrounds  the  copper  pipes. 
The  excess  steam,  or  that  which  is  not  condensed  in  warming  the 
water  of  the  heating  system,  is  discharged  into  the  atmosphere 
through  an  exhaust  pipe.  The  water  in  the  heating  system  is 
circulated  under  pressure  by  a  pump,  the  velocity  of  the  circulation 
depending  upon  the  speed  of  the  pump,  which  may  be  regulated 
at  will  by  the  attendant.  Where  the  exhaust  steam  is  not  sufficient 
to  heat  the  water  to  the  temperature  desired,  a  supplementary 
heater  is  used,  such  a  heater  being  fed  with  live  steam. 

This  system  makes  an  ideal  method  for  the  heating  of  de- 
tached buildings,  or  buildings  adjacent  to  that  in  which  the  engines, 
etc.,  are  located,  as  there  is  no  dependence  placed  on  gravity  pip- 
ing or  the  use  of  traps  as  with  steam  heat.  The  temperature  of 
the  water  may  be  carried  just  as  high  as  the  pump  will  handle  it 

Other  systems  which  are  in  some  respects  similar  to  the  above 
are  in  use,  but  are  not  so  well  known  or  as  extensively  used. 

Hot  water  under  pressure  is  made  use  of  by  numerous  manu- 
facturers for  the  purposes  of  drying,  heating,  etc.  However,  it 
probably  will  not,  in  this  country  at  least,  replace  steam  as  used 
for  similar  purposes. 


CHAPTER    XV 

Hot-water  Heating  Appliances 

WE  might,  in  the  broader  sense  of  the  words,  designate  all  por- 
tions of  a  hot-water  system  as  "  heating  appliances."  We  confine 
our  use  of  the  term,  however,  to  cover  only  those  parts  or  "  trim- 
mings "  which  tend  to  finish  or  render  the  appearance  more  comely ; 
also  to  those  appliances  which  assist  in  maintaining  a  uniform 
temperature  arid  which  render  the  care  and  attention  due  the  ap- 
paratus less  of  a  burden. 

The  early  systems  of  hot-water  heating  had  a  small  pipe,  of 
usually  l/>"  or  %"  in  size,  running  from  the  overflow  of  the  expan- 
sion tank  to  the  basement.  This  was  called  a  "  tell-tale,"  and  the 
operator  in  filling  the  apparatus  would  leave  the  water  pressure 
turned  on  until  the  water  was  heard  running  from  the  tell-tale. 

The  Altitude  Gauge 

This  crude  arrangement  has  been  dispensed  with  and  in  its 
place  we  now  employ  the  altitude  gauge,  Fig.  142.  This  is  or- 
dinarily a  spring  gauge  of  the  Bourdon  type.  The  gauge  has 
two  dials,  a  black  and  a  red  one.  The  black .  dial  is  attached  to 
the  mechanism  of  the  gauge  and  registers  the  height  of  the  water 
in  the  system,  by  feet.  The  red  dial  is  stationary  and  is  movable 
only  by  hand.  After  filling  the  system  to  the  proper  height,  the 
same  being  registered  on  the  gauge,  the  face  of  the  gauge  is  re- 
moved and  the  red  dial  moved  to  the  same  position  as  that  occu- 
pied by  the  black  dial,  when  the  face  of  the  gauge  is  then  replaced. 
As  the  water  in  the  system  evaporates,  the  black  dial  will  drop 
away  from  the  red  one,  indicating  to  the  attendant  that  the  water 
is  low  in  the  system.  As  the  gauge  is  attached  to  the  apparatus  at 
or  near  the  heater,  it  is  necessary  only  for  the  attendant  to  admit 
sufficient  water  to  the  system  to  bring  the  black  dial  back  to 

146 


HOT-WATER    HEATING    APPLIANCES 


147 


the  position  held  by  the  red  one,  thus  indicating  that  the  system 
is  properly  filled. 

The  Hot-water  Thermometer 

The  hot-water  thermometer  used  on  a  hot-water  heating  ap- 
paratus is  a  mercurial  thermometer,  as  shown  by  Fig.  143.  The 
framework  is  of  iron,  or  brass,  on  the  face  of  which  is  the  indi- 
cator. Attached  to  the  face  of  the  indicator  is  the  glass  mercury 
tube,  the  lower  end  of  which  extends  through  the  center  of  a  small 


FIG.  142. — Altitude  gauge. 


FIG.  143.— Hot-water 
thermometer. 

brass  casting.  The  lower  part  of  this  brass  casting  forms  a  cup, 
and  this  cup  part  of  the  casting  is  turned  down  until  it  is  very 
thin. 

This  renders  this  portion  of  it  very  susceptible  to  the  heat. 
A  standard  pipe  thread  is  cut  on  the  outside  of  the  casting,  which 
may  then  be  screwed  into  an  opening  in  the  heater  or  other  portion 
of  the  heating  apparatus.  This  leaves  the  lower  and  thinner  part 
of  the  appliance  submerged  in  the  water. 

In  order  to  get  a  true  register  of  the  temperature  of  the  water 
it  is  necessary  that  the  lower  part  of  the  thermometer  containing 
the  bulb  of  mercury  be  submerged  in  the  water,  as  shown  by  Fig. 
144.  Unless  this  is  done  the  thermometer  will  register  falsely. 


148     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


H.  W. 

Thermometer 


FIG.  144. — Right  method  of  attaching  thermometer. 

We  have  seen  thermometers  used  where  they  were  screwed  into 
an  opening  which  had  been  reduced  in  size  by  the  use  of  several 


H.w. 

Thermometer 


FIG.  145. — Wrong  method  of  attaching  thermometer. 


HOT-WATER    HEATING    APPLIANCES  149 

bushings,  with  the  result  that  the  thermometer  did  not  reach  the 
water  in  the  system.  Fig.  145  illustrates  this,  and  under  such 
conditions  it  is  impossible  to  register  the  correct  temperature. 

Floor  and  Ceiling  Plates 

Not  a  very  long  time  ago  we  were  accustomed  to  notice  cumber- 
some cast-iron  plates  surrounding  the  pipes  where  they  passed 
through  floors  or  ceilings.  They  would  frequently  drop  a  distance 


FIG.  146. — Brass  floor  and  ceiling  plates  nickeled. 

from  the  ceiling,  and  sometimes  fall  entirely  to  the  floor  below,  be- 
cause they  were  insecurely  fastened  in  place.  These  crude  affairs 
have  been  replaced  by  a  nickeled  plate  of  spun  brass,  Fig.  146, 
or  iron,  Fig.  147.  These  plates  are  made  in  two  parts  and  so 


FIG.  147. — Cast-iron  floor  and  ceiling  plates  nickeled. 

constructed  as  to  be  adjustable.  They  are  held  to  the  pipe  by 
springs  and  this  method  keeps  them  firmly  in  their  proper  posi- 
tions. 

The  heating  contractor  now  gives  much  attention  to  the  fin- 
ished appearance  of  his  work  and  this  fact,  no  doubt,  has  led  to 
the  use  of  better  trimmings  on  heating  jobs. 


150     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

Pressure  Appliances 

Some  of  the  more  recent  developments  in  accessories  to  a  hot- 
water  heating  apparatus  are  various  appliances  for  putting  the 
system  under  a  nominal  pressure  without  sealing  or  closing  the 
vent  opening  of  the  expansion  tank.  There  is  no  element  of  danger 
presented  by  the  use  of  any  one  of  these  appliances,  as  the  system 
remains  an  open  one,  but  is,  however,  weighted  down  in  a  manner 
which  allows  of  a  nominal  pressure  under  the  force  caused  by  the 
expansion  of  the  water  within  the  apparatus.  A  considerable  saving 
is  made  in  the  first  cost  of  the  heating  apparatus  by  using  an 
appliance  of  this  character,  as  not  only  may  there  be  a  reduction 
made  in  the  amount  of  radiation  installed,  but  smaller  piping  may 
be  used,  the  same  as  for  a  pressure  system. 

The  Honeywell  system  is  operated  by  mercury.  This  appliance 
is  designated  as  a  "  Heat  Generator  "  and  is  illustrated  by  Fig. 
148.  It  consists  of  two  pipes,  one  within  the  other,  the  larger 
pipe  termed  the  "  stand  pipe,"  the  inner  one,  the  "  circulating 
pipe."  The  upper  end  of  the  stand  pipe  is  screwed  into  the  bot- 
tom opening  of  a  hollow  bulb,  termed  a  "  separating  chamber," 
which  has  also  an  opening  at  the  top  into  which  the  pipe  connection 
to  the  expansion  tank  is  made. 

The  lower  half  of  the  stand  pipe  is  screwed  into  a  bottle-shaped 
hollow  casting,  as  shown  by  Fig.  149  (12),  terminating  in  a  hol- 
low cup  or  "  shoe  "  screwed  on  the  bottom  of  the  pipe.  The  plug 
(16)  screwed  into  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  makes  it  tight,  except 
for  opening  (6)  on  one  side  near  the  top  of  tlie  casting,  into  which 
expansion  pipe  from  heating  system  is  connected.  The  lower  part 
of  the  bottle  is  termed  the  "  mercury  chamber,"  being  filled  with 
mercury  to  the  height  of  the  small  plug  shown  (10),  making  it 
approximately  1%"  in  depth. 

The  principle  of  the  operation  of  the  generator  is  based  on 
the  fact  that  mercury  is  thirteen  times  heavier  than  water,  and 
the  apparatus  is  really  a  mercury  seal,  requiring  a  pressure  of 
about  ten  pounds  to  break  the  seal  and  allow  the  pressure  to  reach 
the  expansion  tank.  The  various  parts  of  the  generator  are  so 
arranged  as  to  allow  the  mercury  to  circulate  under  pressure  and 
to  be  separated  from  the  water  (by  plate  2)  when  the  mercury 


HOT-WATER    HEATING    APPLIANCES 


151 


seal  is  broken  by  excess  of  pressure  on  the  system.  As  the  mer- 
cury is  heavier  than  the  water,  it  settles  again  through  space  8, 
as  per  sketch,  into  the  mercury  chamber  at  the  bottom  of  the  gen- 
erator. 

The  rapidity  of  the  circulation  through  small  piping  and  re- 
duced radiation,  under  a  temperature  equal  to  steam  at  ten  pounds 


FIG.  148.— Honeywell  heat 
generator. 


14 


16  15 


FIG.  149.— Sectional  view  of  Honeywell  heat 
generator. 


pressure,  renders  the  reduced  amount  of  radiation  (10$  reduction) 
effective  for  cold  weather  and  the  wide  range  of  temperature  allows 
of  a  mild  degree  of  heat  in  warmer  weather. 


152     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

When  installing  this  system  there  are  a  few  points  to  be  con- 
sidered, viz. : 

(a)  The  radiation  should  be  figured  as  for  the  regular  hot- 
water  system,  then  a  deduction  of  10$  made. 

(b)  The  heater  should  remain  the  full  size. 

(c)  In  proportioning  size  of  mains,  allow  1  sq.  in.  of  area  for 
each  100  sq.  ft.  to  be  supplied. 

(d)  Make    branches    and   risers    of    the    same    size    and    take 
branches  from  side  of  main. 

(e)  Take  branches  for  second  or  third  floor  risers  from  side  of 
other  branches,  not  from  end  of  the  branch  to  first  floor. 

(f)  Radiator  tappings  should  be  as  follows: 

For  first  floor— up  to  25  sq.  ft.  ll/o"  ;  25  to  60  sq.  ft.  %"  ; 
over  60  sq.  ft.  I". 

For  second  floor— up  to  30  sq.  ft.  %"  ;  30  to  100  sq.  ft.  %"  ; 
over  100  sq.  ft.  1". 

For  third  floor— up  to  50  sq.  ft.  %"  ;  50  to  125  sq.  ft.  %" ; 
over  125  sq.  ft.  I". 

The  length  of  the  pipe  which  screws  down  into  the  mercury 
chamber  and  connects  it  with  the  oval  separating  chamber  is  regu- 
larly 21  inches,  which  allows  of  a  pressure  of  ten  pounds  upon  the 
apparatus. 

A  feature  of  the  generator  is  that  no  mercury  will  be  forced 
out  of  it  and  lost  through  the  overflow  pipe  during  the  operation 
of  filling  the  apparatus  from  the  regular  water-service  pipes. 
When  the  water  supply  valve  is  opened  the  mercury  is  forced  up 
into  the  separating  chamber  and  held  there  until  the  apparatus 
is  filled  with  water,  or  until  the  supply  valve  is  closed,  when  it 
falls  into  the  mercury  pot  and  is  ready  for  service. 

A  detailed  description  of  the  operation  of  the  generator  may  be 
given  as  follows :  When  the  fire  in  the  heater  has  warmed  the  water 
in  the  apparatus  sufficiently  for  it  to  begin  to  expand,  the  pressure 
is  exerted  downward  upon  the  mercury  in  the  bowl  or  chamber, 
forcing  it  upward  through  the  circulating  tube  and  the  space  be- 
tween it  and  the  stand  pipe.  As  soon  as  sufficient  pressure  has  ac- 
cumulated to  force  the  mercury  to  the  top  of  the  stand  pipe  and 
the  circulating  tube,  the  mercury  in  the  bowTl  will  be  lowered  un- 
til its  level  is  at  the  top  of  the  lower  inlet  of  the  circulating  tube. 


HOT-WATER    HEATING    APPLIANCES 


The  two  pipes  now  stand  full  of  mercury,  which,  owing  to  the 
connection  of  the  two  columns  at  the  top  of  the  pipes,  begins  im- 
mediately to  circulate.  Unless  the  fire  in  the  heater  is  checked  the 
pressure  will  continue  to  increase  until  the  mercury  is  forced  below 
the  inlet  of  the  circulating  tube,  allowing  the  water  to  enter  and 


Expansion 
Pipe 


FIG.  150. — Phelps  heat  retainer. 

pass  upward  to  the  tank  until  the  pressure  is  reduced  or  removed, 
the  baffle  plate  in  the  separating  chamber  dividing  the  mercury 
from  the  water  and  preventing  it  from  leaving  the  generator. 
Owing  to  the  small  size  of  piping  used,  it  is  well  to  ream  the  ends 
of  each  length  or  piece  of  pipe  used  in  the  installation  of  the 
system  and  it  is  well  also  to  test  the  circulation  at  as  low  a  tern- 


154     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

perature  as  110°  and  see  that  a  perfect  circulation  may  be  main- 
tained at  this  temperature. 

An  appliance  quite  similar  to  the  Honeywell  Generator  in  the 
results  attained  is  known  as  the  "  Phelps  Heat  Retainer."  How- 
ever, this  has  no  mercury  attachment,  but  consists  of  a  double-act- 
ing valve  inclosed  in  a  cast-iron  box,  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  150. 
A  weight  rests  upon  the  valve  disc  that  opens  toward  the  expansion 
tank,  so  that  the  pressure  on  the  heating  system  must  lift  this 
weight  in  order  that  the  water  may  overflow  into  the  tank.  The 
opposite  end  of  the  valve  opens  into  the  heating  system  and  as 
there  is  no  weight  upon  it,  the  least  condensing  of  the  water  in 
the  system,  due  to  a  low  temperature,  will  open  the  valve  and  allow 
the  water  in  the  expansion  tank  to  feed  down  into  the  system,  thus 
preventing  a  vacuum.  The  pressure  on  the  system  at  which  the 
retainer  operates  is  sixteen  and  one  half  pounds,  allowing  of  a 
temperature  of  250  degrees  before  the  water  can  boil. 

As  with  other  appliances  of  this  kind,  a  large  reduction  may 
be  made  in  the  amount  of  radiation ;  also  small  piping  and  radia- 
tor tappings  may  be  used,  but  the  heater  capacity  should  remain 
unchanged,  as  it  is  necessary  that  this  should  be  of  ample  size. 

As  a  cure  for  sluggish  circulation,  due  to  improper  methods 
of  piping  on  work  already  installed,  or  a  heating  plant  with  insuffi- 
cient radiation,  it  would  seem  that  the  use  of  a  "  generator  "  or 
a  "  retainer  "  should  remedy  the  defect. 


CHAPTER    XVI 

Greenhouse  Heating 

THE  earlier  methods  of  heating  greenhouses  were  both  crude 
and  unsatisfactory.  The  improvement  over  the  old  forms  of  green- 
house heating  and  greenhouse  construction  has  been  such  as  to 
result  in  a  complete  revolution  in  building  and  heating  the  same. 

The  earliest  method  of  heating  a  greenhouse,  a^l  one  which 
for  a  time  was  more  or  less  followed  in  this  country,  was  the  brick 
furnace  and  flue.  This  consisted  of  a  brick  combustion  chamber, 
which  was  fitted  with  a  cast-iron  front,  and  the  lower  part  pro- 
vided with  grate  bars  and  an  ash  pit.  The  furnace  was  built  in 
a  pit  or  cellar  at  one  end  of  the  greenhouse,  the  brick  or  tile  smoke 
flue  connecting  with  the  furnace,  rising  at  a  sharp  angle  to  the 
floor  of  the  house,  where  it  was  continued  at  a  slight  rise  under 
the  bed  in  the  center  of  the  house  to  the  chimney  at  the  opposite 
end.  The  hot  air  radiated  by  this  flue  was  sufficient  to  heat  a  small 
greenhouse.  There  were  so  many  objections  to  the  use  of  this 
apparatus,  such  as  the  overheating  and  withering  of  plants,  the 
killing  of  flowers  by  escaping  gas  through  the  tile  or  brickwork, 
etc.,  that  it  was  discarded  in  favor  of  steam  or  hot  water  heat, 
as  soon  as  the  latter  methods  were  generally  adopted  for  green- 
house heating. 

The  original  method  of  hot-water  heating  in  this  country, 
as  applied  to  greenhouse  work,  consisted  of  a  cast-iron  heater  of 
a  type  similar  to  that  as  shown  by  Figs.  23  and  24.  The  piping 
was  of  cast  iron,  about  4"  in  diameter,  with  a  hub  or  socket  on  one 
end.  These  were  fastened  together  by  using  iron  filings  and  other 
ingredients,  making  a  rust  joint. 

The  various  lines  of  pipe  had  an  upward  pitch  to  the  far  end 
of  the  house,  where  they  terminated  in  a  hollow  cast-iron  post  with 

air  openings  through  the  top.     These  were  called  expansion  tanks, 

155 


156     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

though  they  might  more  properly  have  been  called  "  expansion 
posts."  They  not  only  took  care  of  the  increase  in  the  volume  of 
water,  when  heated,  but  served  at  the  same  time  to  extract  the  air 
from  the  system.  We  believe  Hitchings  &  Company  were  the  pio- 
neers in  this  class  of  work  in  the  United  States. 

Greenhouses  are  of  two  kinds,  viz. :  the  commercial  greenhouses 
in  which  are  grown  flowers  and  vegetables  for  profit,  and  the  green- 
houses or  conservatories  of  the  wealthier  class  and  as  found  also 
in  many  of  our  public  parks  and  botanical  gardens.  In  the  heating 
of  the  latter  the  first  consideration  is  the  efficiency  of  the  ap- 
paratus, without  reference  to  the  matter  of  economy  in  the  con- 
sumption of  fuel.  On  the  other  hand,  with  the  former  class  (the 
commercial  houses)  both  efficiency  and  economy  in  fuel  are  a  con- 
stant study  with  the  owner.  The  increase  in  the  number  of  com- 
mercial greenhouses  has  been  such  that  at  the  present  time  there 
is  scarcely  a  town  of  any  size  which  does  not  have  one  or  more 
greenhouses,  and  in  the  towns  adjacent  to  or  within  easy  com- 
munication of  the  larger  cities,  they  may  be  counted  by  the  dozen. 
It  is,  therefore,  important  that  the  heating  contractor  become  fa- 
miliar with  the  modern  methods  of  greenhouse  heating — how  to  es- 
timate the  radiation  required  and  in  what  manner  the  piping  should 
be  erected  and  the  general  conditions  surrounding  the  work. 

Modern  Greenhouse  Heating 

The  modern  methods  of  greenhouse  heating  are  by  steam  or  hot 
water.  There  is  a  diversity  of  opinion  among  florists  and  garden- 
ers as  to  which  system  of  the  two  is  perferable,  some  florists  of 
large  experience  advocating  steam,  while  others  of  equal  expe- 
rience and  standing  favor  hot  water.  We  are  inclined  to  believe 
that  hot  water  is  best  adapted  for  the  use  of  florists  for  the  fol- 
lowing reasons. 

(a)  Greater  economy  in  fuel  consumption. 

(b)  Uniformity    of   temperature,    hot-water    heat   being  more 
constant  and  even.      Should  the  fire  for  any  reason  get  low,  the 
water  continues  to  circulate  for  hours. 

(c)  Where  hot  water  is  used  for  heating,  the  atmosphere  in 
the  greenhouse  is  mild  and  humid,  insuring  a  healthy  growth  of 
the  plants  and  flowers. 


GREENHOUSE    HEATING  157 

(d)  The  hot-water  apparatus  may  be  put  under  pressure,  if 
desired,  and  thus  equal  low-pressure  steam  in  intensity  and  quick- 
ness of  action. 

There  are  some  groups  of  houses  so  situated  that  a  steam- 
heating  apparatus  is  better  adapted  for  heating  than  would  be  a 
hot-water  apparatus  or  where  a  hot-water  apparatus  could  not 
be  properly  installed ;  hence  it  is  well  that  the  heating  contractor 
become  conversant  with  each  of  the  two  methods. 

Estimating  Radiation 

A  greenhouse  structure  offers  less  resistance  to  cold  and  frost 
than  any  other  type  of  building,  and,  therefore,  requires  not  only 
a  greater  amount  of  heat  but  greater  care  in  its  distribution  in 
order  to  insure  an  even  temperature  throughout  the  house. 

In  order  to  intelligently  estimate  we  must  know  what  tempera- 
ture  is  required  for  each  house,  as  different  plants  require  different 
degrees  of  heat.  For  instance,  carnations  require  a  temperature 
of  from  50  to  55  degrees,  roses  from  60  to  65  degrees,  chrysan- 
themums from  55  to  60  degrees,  and  houses  for  ferns,  orchids, 
palms,  etc.,  or,  as  they  are  called  by  florists,  "  general  purpose 
houses  "  require  from  55  to  70  degrees.  Many  florists  have  be- 
come growers  of  mushrooms,  and  these  require  a  temperature  of 
from  51  to  56  degrees. 

Exposed  surface  is  alone  considered  in  estimating  radiation 
and  there  are  several  methods  of  figuring.  Where  houses  are  al- 
ready erected  and  it  is  possible  to  measure  them,  the  amount  of 
glass  and  exposed  surface  may  be  easily  and  quickly  figured. 
Where  this  is  not  possible,  the  following  rule  will  be  found  fairly 
accurate. 

For  houses  not  exceeding  three  or  four  feet  in  height  at  the 
eaves  and  when  built  in  groups  with  no  side  glass,  find  the  floor 
area  of  the  house  and  add  one  third  for  ends  and  pitch  of  roof. 
The  result  will  be  the  amount  of  exposed  glass  surface. 

Example:  a  house  16'  X  100' — no  glass  on  sides. 

16  X  100  ==  1600  -=-  J  =  533 
1600  +  533  =  2133  sq.  ft.  of  glass. 

For  a  house  16'  X  100'  with  a  belt  of  glass  2'  high  under 


158     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


eaves:  Proceed  as  before,  and  to  the  result  of  2133  sq.  ft.  add 
the  side  glass  100  X  2  =  200  X  2  =  400  +  2133  =  2533  sq.  ft, 
of  glass. 

To  determine  the  amount  of  radiation  necessary,  use  the  fol- 
lowing table.  This  table  is  based  on  the  temperature  of  a  climate 
similar  to  that  of  New  York  City,  where  the  temperature  is  sel- 
dom at  or  below  zero  and  then  for  only  a  short  period  of  time. 

TABLE  XVI 


Temperature 
Required. 

For  Steam. 

For  Water. 

45° 

Divide  square  feet  of  glass  by 

8 

5 

50° 

«          (         «     « 

7 

4 

55° 

«          <          «    « 

6^2 

3% 

60° 

«           <          «     a 

6 

3^ 

65° 

«           <          «<     « 

VA 

&A 

70° 

5 

3 

It  is  the  custom  to  build  greenhouses  in  as  protected  a  position 
as  possible  and  this  fact  is  taken  into  consideration  in  formulat- 
ing the  above  table.  When  the  houses  are  in  a  particularly  ex- 
posed position,  to  give  70°  inside,  use  the  figures  "  4  "  for  steam 
and  "  2%  "  for  hot  water  as  divisors  and  the  same  proportionate 
addition  for  other  temperatures. 

When  estimating  for  the  pressure  system  (sealed  tank)  of  hot 
water,  use  the  same  divisors  as  for  steam. 

TABLE  XVII 


Temperature 
of  Air 

Sq.  Ft.  of  glass  and  its  equivalent  proportioned  to  one  sq.  ft.  of  surface 
in  heating  pipes  or  radiator. 

in  House. 

Temperature  of  Water  in  Heating  Pipes. 

140°                             160°                             180°                             200° 

40° 

4.33 

5.25 

6.66 

7.69 

45° 

.   3.63 

4.65 

5.55 

6.66 

50° 

3.07 

3.92 

4.76 

5.71 

55° 

2.63 

3.39 

4.16 

5.00 

60° 

2.19 

2.89 

3.63 

4.33 

65° 

1.86 

2  53 

3.22 

3.84 

70° 

1.58 

2.19 

2.81 

3.44 

75° 

1.37 

1.92 

2.50 

3.07 

80° 

1.16 

1.63 

2.17 

2.73 

85° 

.99 

1.42 

1.92 

2.46 

GREENHOUSE    HEATING  159 

For  a  greenhouse  exposed  on  all  sides  (not  one  of  a  group) 
it  is  well  to  figure  all  wall  surface,  sides  and  ends,  and  for  each 
five  square  feet  of  wall  surface  add  one  sq.  ft.  to  the  glass  surface. 

The  preceding  table  will  assist  in  determining  the  proportion- 
ate amount  qf  glass  to  heating  surface  for  various  temperatures 
in  the  greenhouse,  the  outside  temperature  being  at  zero. 

Methods  of  Greenhouse  Piping 

There  has  been  much  discussion  among  florists  as  to  the  relative 
merits  of  various  styles  of  piping  for  greenhouses  and  we  believe 
the  consensus  of  opinion  to  be  in  favor  of  what  is  termed  the  "  over- 
fed system."  By  this  is  meant  a  running  of  the  flow  pipes  overhead 
from  one  end  of  the  house  to  the  other  and  bringing  back  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  return  pipes  under  the  benches  or  beds  to  give 
the  necessary  amount  of  heating  surface  in  the  house.  In  arrang- 
ing for  the  heating  of  a  greenhouse  the  boiler  pit  or  cellar  should, 
if  possible,  be  placed  at  the  low  end  of  the  house  in  order  better  to 
allow  for  the  proper  pitch  and  drainage  of  the  piping,  which  in  a 
house  of  considerable  length  is  often  a  troublesome  matter.  If 
the  greenhouse  is  built  on  level  ground  the  boiler  may  be  placed  at 
either  end  and  in  the  event  of  using  one  boiler  to  heat  a  group  of 
houses,  the  boiler  house  and  cellar  should  be  centrally  located  in 
order  to  facilitate  the  arrangement  of  the  piping. 

There  are  many  advantages  to  be  gained  by  the  use  of  the 
overfed  system,  chief  of  which  is  the  placing  of  a  share  of  the 
heating  surface  in  the  most  exposed  portion  of  the  house,  thus 
tempering  a  large  portion  of'  the  cold  air  which  finds  entrance 
through  or  around  the  ventilators  or  through  the  laps  in  the  glass. 
In  setting  the  glass  in  a  greenhouse  the  panes  are  lapped  over  each 
other  in  much  the  same  manner  as  shingles  or  slate  are  laid  on 
a  roof,  and  the  lap  made  in  laying  each  pane  is  in  many  instances 
not  air  tight. 

Again,  in  securing  an  even  temperature  of  the  air  in  the  house 
the  overhead  pipes  are  of  great  assistance.  We  show  by  Fig.  151 
a  small  hot-water  apparatus  for  heating  a  single  house.  The 
potting  shed  and  cellar  for  the  heater  are  built  against  the  side 
of  the  house  at  one  end.  The  flow  pipe  rises  from  the  heater  in 
the  most  convenient  manner  to  a  point  well  toward  the  top  of  the 


160     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

shed.     This  is  the  high  point  of  the  system  and  from  this  point 
the  connection  to  the  expansion  tank  is  made.     The  flow  is  then 


').  '  I    \    •  '  1       {N,/     - 

iv*  >,-;<•  x*V.Oi 


?^!^C5 

iiTn'^JM  £'  5, 
.i  vi'(,'j.v  ~-; 

';(;rrj  (^-~^)'r 


i'nV'1:—  >: ''-  ' -' 


taken  into  and  across  one  end  of  the  greenhouse  and  supplies  two 
main  pipes  which  are  hung  overhead  on  the  posts  supporting  the 
roof.  These  have  a  slight  fall  to  the  far  end  of  the  house  where 


GREENHOUSE    HEATING 


161 


a  drop  is  made,  each  flow  feeding  four  return  pipes  which  are  hung 
under  the  benches.  The  piping  (both  flows  and  returns)  have  a 
slight  fall  from  the  expansion-tank  connection  to  the  connection 
to  main  return. 

Fig.  152  shows  a  skeleton  view  of  one  half  of  the  piping,  and 
illustrates  the  system  very  clearly.  Valves  should  be  placed  on  the 
connections  to  each  group  of  return  pipes;  those  for  hot  water 
may  be  placed  on  either  the  flow  or  return  connection.  This  will 
enable  the  florist  to  cut  out  from  service  any  portion  of  the  ap- 
paratus as  desired — a  very  necessary  operation  in  the  mild  days 
of  the  spring  and  fall  months. 


Down 


Flow 


To  Heater 
FIG.  152. — Method  of  piping  for  greenhouse. 

The  arrangement  of  the  piping  for  steam  is  quite  similar  to 
that  for  hot  water,  the  expansion  tank  and  connections,  of  course, 
being  omitted.  When  piping  a  greenhouse  for  steam,  valves  must 
be  placed  on  both  supply  and  return  pipes,  the  air  vents  being 
placed  on  the  return  end  of  each  group  of  return  pipes  and  care 
must  be  taken  to  avoid  all  trapping  of  pipes  and  the  forming  of 
air  pockets  in  the  system.  Should  the  house  be  a  large  one  and  a 
number  of  return  pipes  be  placed  in  each  group  it  is  well  to  use 
branch  tees  (see  Fig.  52)  on  the  supply  and  return  end  of  each 
group  of  pipes. 

Where  the  side  walls  of  a  greenhouse  are  built  high  from  the 
ground  it  is  sometimes  found  advisable  to  place  a  portion  of  the 
piping  on  the  sides.  When  a  number  of  houses  are  built  side  by 
side  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  build  a  potting  shed  or  inclosed 
passage  along  one  end  of  the  houses,  and  the  main  supply  pipe 


162     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

of  the  heating  apparatus  should  be  run  through  this  shed,  branch 
mains  being  taken  off  as  frequently  as  is  found  necessary.  In  de- 
termining the  quantity  and  size  of  pipes  to  obtain  a  certain  amount 
of  heating  surface,  the  table  of  pipe  size  and  capacities  given  in 
Chapter  VI  will  be  found  of  great  assistance. 

For  the  mains  running  through  the  center  of  the  house  it  is 
not  advisable  to  use  pipe  larger  than  3"  in  size.  As  these  mains 
are  usually  hung  on  the  center  posts  supporting  the  roof,  the 
increased  weight  of  the  heavy  piping  might  cause  damage  from 
breakage  or  sagging. 


CHAPTER    XVII 
Vacuum,  Vapor  and  Vacuum  Exhaust  Heating 

VACUUM  heating  is  the  operation  or  running  of  a  steam-heat- 
ing plant  at  a  less  pressure  than  the  atmosphere,  which  at  sea 
level  is  14.7  pounds  per  square  inch.  On  the  ordinary  steam-heat- 
ing plant  we  are  accustomed  to  say,  for  instance,  that  we  have 
two,  five  or  ten  pounds  pressure.  By  this  we  mean,  pressure  above 
that  of  the  atmosphere,  and  therefore  the  true  pressure  on  such 
a  plant  would  be  16.7,  19.7,  or  24.7  pounds  as  the  case  might  be. 

To  state  this  matter  in  another  form :  water  boils  at  sea  level, 
atmospheric  pressure,  at  212  degrees  Fahr.,  in  an  open  vessel  or 
in  the  ordinary  steam  apparatus  with  air  vents  open  to  the  at- 
mosphere. Supposing  we  relieve  the  apparatus  from  all  atmos- 
pheric pressure — the  water  in  it  will  boil  at  a  temperature  of  98 
degrees.  The  word  "  vacuum  "  means  empty  space,  or  space  void 
of  matter.  We  are  accustomed  to  speak  of  a  bottle  or  other  ves- 
sel from  which  the  contents  have  been  drawn  off  as  being  empty. 
This  is  not  true,  because  as  fast  as  the  receptacle  is  emptied  of 
its  visible  contents  an  invisible  volume  of  air  or  atmosphere  takes 
its  place. 

Steam  and  air  being  of  different  densities  will  not  mix.  Close 
tightly  the  air  valve  on  a  radiator  when  there  is  no  pressure  of 
steam  on  the  apparatus  and  the  result  will  be  that  as  the  steam 
pressure  is  increased  the  air  in  the  radiator  wrill  be  compressed, 
making  it  impossible  for  the  steam  to  fill  all  of  the  radiator.  Open 
the  air  vent  and  the  radiator  will  fill  with  steam  as  the  air  is  pushed 
ahead  of  the  steam  and  exhausted  through  the  air  vent  opening. 
Steam  is  an  elastic  gas,  or  properly,  is  water  turned  into  gas  by 
expansion  due  to  heating  it  to  a  temperature  above  the  boiling 
point.  If  unconfined,  water  thus  turned  into  steam  is  expanded 
seventeen  hundred  times.  Therefore,  reverting  again  to  the  radia- 
tor, after  the  steam  with  which  it  is  filled  condenses,  it  occupies 

163 


164     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

but  a  very  small  part  of  the  space  within  the  radiator,  the  remainder 
of  the  space  again  filling  with  air,  which  must  repeatedly  be  ex- 
hausted before  the  radiator  will  fill  with  steam.  Vacuum  as  applied 
to  steam  heating  means  the  use  of  some  form  of  apparatus,  such 
as  an  exhauster,  pump,  or  other  appliance,  to  keep  the  radiators 
and  other  parts  of  the  heating  apparatus  free  from  air,  or  under 
a  vacuum  in  order  that  the  water  in  the  system  wrill  boil  at  a  low 
temperature  and  be  converted  into  steam,  which  may  then  flow  un- 
obstructed through  all  piping  and  radiators.  The  flow  of  steam 
in  a  vacuum  attains  a  velocity  of  1,550  feet  per  second.  Thus 
it  will  be  seen  how  quickly  a  circulation  in  a  heating  system  can  be 
established. 

With  an  apparatus  capable  of  producing  steam  at  98  degrees 
(complete  vacuum)  to  240  degrees  (10  Ibs.  atmospheric  pressure), 
there  seems  no  doubt  but  what  any  building  may  be  readily  and 
easily  heated  no  matter  how  quickly  weather  conditions  and  the 
outside  temperature  may  change,  and  that  a  minimum  degree  of 
economy  in  fuel  consumption  may  be  attained. 

With  a  regular  system  of  steam  heating  the  air  in  apparatus 
is  never  entirely  removed  from  radiators  and  piping,  particu- 
larly from  the  radiating  surface.  When  the  vacuum  system  is  at- 
tached to  an  apparatus  of  this  kind  all  air  in  every  portion  of  the 
radiators  and  piping  is  exhausted  from  the  system,  rendering  the 
heating  surface  more  efficient.  Thus  old  systems  are  benefited  by 
the  addition  of  the  vacuum  appliances  and  even  though  but  a 
partial  vacuum  be  maintained,  the  betterment  of  the  job  in  effi- 
ciency and  the  saving  of  fuel  are  quickly  noticeable. 

To  this  may  be  added  other  features  which  make  a  system  of 
this  character  particularly  desirable,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned : 

(a)  The  low  cost  of  installation,  it  averaging  much  less  than 
for  hot  water,  yet  retaining  all  of  the  various  degrees  of  tempera- 
ture regulation  possible  with  a  hot -water  system. 

(b)  Economy  in  fuel  over  either  steam  or  hot  water. 

(c)  Less  radiation  required  than  for  hot  water,  while  still  re- 
taining the  range  of  temperature. 

(d)  No  danger  from  frosts  or  leaks,  which  frequently  occur 
in  a  hot-water  heating  apparatus. 


VAPOR    AND    VACUUM    EXHAUST    HEATING     165 

(e)  Long  runs  of  piping  which  very  often  cause  trouble,  ow- 
ing to  inability  to  drain  them  properly,  can  with  a  vacuum  system 
be  entirely  freed  from  the  water  of  condensation. 

Improved  Methods  of  Exhaust  Heating 

In  Chapter  XII  we  briefly  called  the  attention  of  our  readers 
to  the  advantages  of  utilizing  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  engine. 
We  now  desire  to  describe  several  of  the  more  modern  methods 
of  applying  this  exhaust  to  the  heating  of  a  building.  To  derive 
the  greatest  benefit  from  a  steam-heating  apparatus,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  system  free  of  air,  and  this  is  particularly  true 
when  heating  with  exhaust  steam. 

Air  in  a  greater  or  less  quantity  is  always  present  in  water 
used  for  boiler-feed  purposes.  As  the  water  in  the  boiler  is  gen- 
erated into  steam,  all  air  collects  in  the  various  radiators  or  coils 
of  the  heating  system  and  this  accumulation  of  air  obstructs  the 
flow  of  the  incoming  steam  and  prevents  it  from  distributing  uni- 
formly over  the  heating  service,  with  the  result  that  the  radiator 
or  coil  is  never  working  at  its  full  efficiency. 

Vacuum  heating  when  originally  used  was  applied  to  a  system 
of  exhaust  heating  and  for  some  time  was  employed  in  no  other 
manner.  The  original  patents  wTere  taken  out  by  Mr.  N.  P. 
Williams,  in  1882.  This  was  followed  by  the  "  Webster  System  " 
by  Warren  Webster  &  Co.,  the  "Paul  System,"  by  Andrew  G. 
Paul,  and  the  vacuum  system  was  applied  to  all  classes  of  steam 
work. 

Fig.  153  shows  the  application  of  the  Webster  System  on  an 
exhaust  steam-heating  apparatus.  Reference  to  the  same  will  show 
the  various  appliances  and  connections  necessary  for  a  system 
of  this  character.  "  The  operation  of  the  Webster  System  is 
based  upon  the  flow  of  steam  and  condensation  from  a  pressure 
slightly  above  into  a  pressure  slightly  below  that  of  the  atmos- 
phere or  into  a  partial  vacuum."  This  is  the  explanation  given  of 
the  principles  of  the  Webster  System  and  is,  we  think,  sufficiently 
clear  to  be  readily  understood. 

With  this  system  a  partial  vacuum  is  maintained  only  on  the 
return  pipes  and  the  system  is,  therefore,  applicable  only  to  two- 
pipe  work.  At  the  return  end  of  each  radiator  or  coil,  in  the  place 


166     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


0@l 


3 


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•3 
f 


VAPOR    AND   VACUUM   EXHAUST    HEATING     167 

of  an  ordinary  valve  there  is  put  a  motor  valve,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  154*  and  Fig.  155.  The  working  of  this  valve  is  automatic. 
It  prevents  the  escape  of  steam  from  the  radiator  or  coil  and  at  the 
same  time  removes  all  air  and  all  water  of  condensation  from  the 
same,  thus  making  the  entire  surface  of  the  radiator  or  coil  effective 
for  heating  purposes.  The  pressure  of  steam  in  these  radiators 
or  coils  is  not  reduced  by  the  vacuum  on  the  returns.  This  pres- 


FIG.  154. — Exterior  of  motor  valve. 


FIG.  153A. — Webster  motor  valve 
at  base  of  riser. 


sure  is  dependent  on  the  volume  of  steam  which  can  enter  through 
the  supply  valve.  At  the  base  of  each  riser  a  motor  valve  is  placed 
as  shown  by  Fig.  153A. 

The  vacuum  on  a  Webster  system  is  produced  by  the  operation 
of  a  pump,  which  pumps  the  return  water  and  the  vapor  (air)  out 
of  the  system  and  delivers  them  into  a  tank  which  is  open  to  the 
atmosphere  to  allow  all  vapor  to  escape.  The  return  water  is  fed 
from  this  tank  into  a  feed-water  heater,  and  from  this  is  delivered 
to  the  boiler  by  a  feed  pump.  When  a  low-pressure  boiler  is  used 
the  vacuum  pump  is  usually  driven  by  a  chain-connected  electric 
motor,  and  the  water  and  air  are  delivered  to  a  tank  placed  suffi- 


168     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

ciently  high  above  the  boiler  to  feed  the  water  into  the  same  by 
gravity  against  the  low  pressure  carried  on  the  boiler. 

With  this  system  smaller  flow  and  return  pipes  may  be  used 
than  for  the  regular  two-pipe  system  of  steam  heating,  and  radia- 


Pc280 


FIG.  155. — Cross  section  of  motor  valve. 

tors  or  heating  coils  may  be  placed  below  the  line  of  the  main 
feed  or  return  pipes  and  work  successfully. 

The  Paul  System 

Mr.  Andrew  G.  Paul  in  seeking  a  method  of  keeping  a  heating 
apparatus  free  from  air  perfected  a  system  which  is  known  as 
the  "  Paul  System."  This  is  quite  different  from  the  other  sys- 
tems of  vacuum  heating  in  that  it  removes  the  air  only,  the  water 
of  condensation  finding  its  way  to  the  boiler  by  gravity.  It  is  thus 
applicable  to  either  low-pressure  or  high-pressure  steam  heating, 
and  to  either  the  one  or  two  pipe  system. 

A  special  apparatus  called  an  exhauster  removes  all  air  from 
the  system  before  the  steam  is  allowed  to  enter,  the  automatic  or 
thermostatic  air  valves  on  each  unit  of  radiation  closing  against 
the  steam  immediately  all  air  is  exhausted  and  the  steam  comes  in 
contact  with  the  air  valve.  This  exhausting  apparatus  is  of  two 
kinds,  namely,  for  high  pressure  and  for  low  pressure.  Fig.  156 
shows  the  high-pressure  exhauster.  It  is  operated  by  a  jet  of 
steam,  and  is  the  kind  of  appliance  used  on  a  system  of  exhaust 


VAPOR    AND    VACUUM    EXHAUST    HEATING     169 

.Outlet 


FIG.  156. — Paul  system — high-pressure  exhauster. 


FIG.  157. — Paul  system — Low-pressure  exhauster. 


170     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

heating.  Fig.  157  shows  the  low-pressure  exhauster,  which  may  be 
operated  by  water  pressure.  The  return  pipes  and  drips  connect 
into  a  receiving  tank,  from  which  the  condensation  is  pumped  back 
to  the  boiler.  This  receiver  is  a  closed  tank  and  on  it  is  placed 
a  thermos tatic  valve  for  the  removal  of  all  air. 


KEY  TO  FIG.  158 


A.  Boiler 

B.  Feed-water  Heater 

C.  Engine 

D.  Exhauster 

F.  Feed  Pump 

G.  Reducing-pressure  Valve 
H.  Back-pressure  Valve 

I.  Exhaust  from  Engine 

J.  Exhaust  from  Pump 

K.  Compound  Gauge 

L.  Vacuum  Gauge 

M.  Gate  Valves 

N.  Check  Valves 

O.  Live  Steam  to  Pump 

P.  Live  Steam  to  Engine 

Q.  Live  Steam  to  Exhauster 


R.  Cold-water  Feed 

S.  Feed  to  Boiler 

T.  Suction  to  Pump 

U.  Discharge  from  Exhauster 

V.  Exhaust  to  Atmosphere 

W.  Radiators 

X.  Air  Valves 

Y.  Returns 

Z.  Drips 

a.  Air  Pipes 

b.  Supply  Heating  Pipes 

d.  Blow-off  and  Overflow 

e.  Relief  Pipe 

f.  Angle  Valve 

h.  Water  Column 

i.  Radiator  Valves 


KEY  TO  FIG.  159 


A.  Boiler 

B.  Engine 

C.  Feed-water  Heater 

D.  Aut.  Return  Tank  and  Pump 

E.  Back-pressure  Valve 
G.  Live-steam  Separator 
H.  Grease  Extractor 

I.  Steam  Gauge 

J.  Compound  Gauge 

K.  Vacuum  Gauge 

L.  Exhauster 

M.  Safety  Valve 

N.  Water-relief  Valve 

O.  Gate  Valve 

P.  Angle  Valve 

Q.  Check  Valve 

R.  Reducing-pressure  Valve 

S.  By-Pass  for  Red. -pressure  Valve 


T.    Automatic  Air  Valve 
U.    Live  Steam  to  Engine 
V.    Live  Steam  to  Reducing-pressure  V. 
W.    Live  Steam  to  Pump 
X.    Live  Steam  to  Exhauster 
Y.    Exhaust  from  Engine 
Z.    Exhaust  to  Atmosphere 

a.  Drip  from  Exhaust  Head 

b.  Heating  Supply  Pipe 
Drip  from  Heater 

Drip  from  Grease  Extractor 
Drip  from  Exhaust  Pipe 
Feed -water  Pipe 
Discharge  from  Exhauster 


c. 
d. 
e. 
f. 

g- 

h.    Drip  from  Separator 

i.    Return  Pipe 


j.    Air  Pipe 


Fig.    158   shows  the  application  of  the  system  on  a  two-pipe 
system  and  Fig.   159  shows  a  single  pipe  overhead  or  down-fed 


VAPOR    AND    VACUUM    EXHAUST    HEATING     171 


172     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


VAPOR    AND    VACUUM    EXHAUST    HEATING     173 

system.  In  operating,  the  exhausting  apparatus  is  first  put  in 
operation  and  all  air  removed  from  the  system.  The  steam  as  it  is 
turned  on  the  system  finding  no  air  pressure  to  impede  its  prog- 
ress flows  naturally  and  unobstructed  into  each  radiator  and  coil, 
when  having  completely  filled  them  reaches  the  thermostatic  air 
valve,  which  closes  as  the  steam  touches  it.  When  the  steam  is 
turned  off  and  the  radiator  cooled,  the  air  valve  again  opens,  all 
air  in  it  is  exhausted,  thus  leaving  the  radiator  in  condition  to  re- 
ceive the  steam  again.  There  is  a  constant  vacuum  on  the  air 
line  below  the  air  valves.  After  the  air  has  been  sucked  out  of  the 
radiators,  however,  these  valves  close. 

The  Vaa-Auken  System 

In  many  respects  this  is  similar  to  the  Webster  and  the  Paul 
systems.  An  exhausting  device  known  as  a  "  Belvac  Thermofier  " 
is  used  on  the  return  end  of  each  radiator,  which  works  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  the  Webster  Motor  Valve.  A  vacuum  pump, 
receiving  tank,  together  with  the  usual  specialties  employed  in  ex- 
haust heating,  are  also  used  in  much  the  same  manner  as  on  the 
Webster  System. 

In  application  several  styles  of  piping  may  be  used.  For  a 
heating  plant  with  gravity  returns  a  drip  tank  or  receiver  is  made 
use  of,  into  which  the  gravity  return  discharges.  The  drops  from 
the  various  risers  discharge  to  the  tank  through  a  trap.  The 
main  vacuum  return  is  connected  to  this  tank,  which  feeds  directly 
to  the  vacuum  pump. 

Mercury  Seal  Systems 

The  systems  described  in  the  preceding  pages  are  what  might 
be  called  mechanical  systems,  that  is,  they  require  a  pump,  ex- 
hauster, or  other  device  in  maintaining  a  vacuum  and  removing 
the  condensation  from  radiators  and  piping.  A  system  of  this 
kind  would  scarcely  be  applicable  for  heating  an  ordinary  residence, 
or  small-sized  building. 

In  order  to  maintain  a  vacuum  on  a  heating  system  it  is  essen- 
tial that  after  having  once  exhausted  or  driven  the  air  out  of  the 
radiators  and  piping  it  be  prevented  from  entering  again.  It  can 


174     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

be  readily  comprehended  how  that  any  simple  method  of  accom- 
plishing this  would  be  as  productive  of  results  as  either  one  of  the 
larger  systems.  The  success  of  the  larger  mechanical  heating 
plants  led  to  much  experimenting  writh  the  smaller  systems.  Ow- 
ing to  its  density,  mercury  was  brought  into  use  in  conducting 
these  experiments,  with  the  result  that  two  systems  have  been 
evolved  and  patented,  one  by  D.  F.  Morgan,  now  known  as  the 
"  K-M-C  "  system,  and  the  other  by  Jas.  A.  Trane,  known  as  the 
"  Mercury  Seal  "  system.  Both  are  similar  in  principle,  employing 
a  mercury  device  for  preventing  the  air  from  reentering  the  system 
after  once  having  been  exhausted. 


The  "K-M-C"  System 

Fig.  160  shows  the  general  arrangement  of  the  piping,  boiler 
connections  and  special  devices  of  this  system. 

The  air  is  driven  from  the  apparatus  by  a  slight  pressure  of 
steam  and  is  prevented  from  reentering  the  system  by  a  mercury 


FIG.  160. — "K-M-C"  system  of  vacuum  heating. 

seal.    The  end  of  the  air  line  is  submerged  in  mercury  to  the  depth 
of  about  one  half  of  an  inch.     This  offers  but  little  resistance  in 


VAPOR    AND    VACUUM    EXHAUST    HEATING     175 


expelling  the  air,  but  effectually  prevents  it  from  reentering  the 
system.  An  accumulating  tank  is  used  to  prevent  any  water  from 
entering  the  mercury  seal.  Sufficient  water  is  always  present  in 
this  tank  to  condense  any  steam  which  might  enter  through  the 
air  line. 

Fig.  161  shows  a  descriptive  cut  of  the  system  with  the  various 
specialties  connected. 

The  damper  regulator  is  a  very  important  part  of  this  ar- 
rangement ;  it  effectually  controls  the  fire  and  prevents  overheating. 
It  consists  of  a  drawn  copper  cylinder  with  a  rubber  diaphragm 


Mercury  Seal 
Accumulating  Tank. 


FIG.  161. — "K-M-C"  system  showing  attachment  of  fixtures. 

at  the  bottom.  The  expansion  of  air  in  the  copper  cylinder,  when 
heated,  operates  the  regulator,  which  may  be  set  to  open  or  close 
the  dampers  either  above  or  below  atmospheric  pressure. 

A  special  type  of  automatic  air  valve  known  as  a  "  retarder  " 
is  used  on  the  radiators  and  coils  and  to  which  the  air  lines  are 
connected.  The  supply  end  of  the  radiator  is  provided  with  a 
Packless  Diaphragm  radiator  valve,  which  prevents  air  leaks  at 


176     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

the  valve,  which  would  destroy  the  vacuum  on  the  system.  The 
air  lines  are  run  in  quite  the  same  manner  as  described  for  the 
following  system. 

The  Trane  System 

The  Trane  System,  as  designed  by  Jas.  A.  Trane,  is  also  known 
as  the  "  Mercury  Seal  System  "  from  the  fact  that  all  air  from  the 
system  is  discharged  through  a  mercury  seal  or  trap  which  effec- 


Mercury 


FIG.  162. — Mercury  seal — Trane  system. 

tually  prevents  the  air  from  reentering  the  system  through  the 
air  valves,  after  having  been  expelled  by  the  steam  pressure. 

Each  radiator  is  provided  with  an  automatic  air  valve  quite 
similar  to  the  Paul  air  valve,  having  a  union  drip  connection. 
An  air-line  pipe  is  run  around  the  basement,  convenient  to  the 
steam  main  and  the  air  pipe  from  each  radiator  is  connected  into 
it.  This  air  line  terminates  at  a  point  near  the  boiler  and  drops 
down,  connecting  into  the  top  of  the  device  known  as  a  mercury 
seal.  See  Fig.  162. 


VAPOR    AND    VACUUM    EXHAUST    HEATING     177 


The  steam  piping  may  be  either  one  of  the  regular  systems, 
and  there  is  nothing  special  in  the  way  of  erecting  the  same,  ex- 
cept to  see  that  all  joints  are  made  tight  and  that  the  stuffing 
boxes  of  all  valves  are  tightly  packed.  A  safety  valve  which 
is  air  tight  should  be  used,  the  "  pop  "  spring  valve  being  recom- 
mended. A  compound  gauge  registering  vacuum  and  steam  pres- 
sure should  be  placed  on  the  system. 

The  mercury  seal  device  shown  by  Fig.  162  is  constructed  some- 
what on  the  principle  of  the  ordinary  mercury  barometer,  the  end 
of  the  air  pipe  dipping  into  the  mercury,  which  is  held  in  the  cup- 


FIG.  163. — The  Trane  system  of  vacuum  heating. 

shaped  interior  of  the  hollow  base  of  the  seal.  While  forming  a 
seal  preventing  air  from  entering  the  system,  the  mercury  offers 
very  litle  resistance  to  the  expulsion  of  air  from  the  system,  a  pres- 
sure of  but  one  half  pound  being  necessary  to  accomplish  this. 

A  general  idea  of  the  application  of  this  system  is  shown  by 
Fig.   163,   which  illustrates   the  air   lines  and   mercury   seal   at- 


178     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

tached  to  a  one-pipe  circuit  system.  The  operation  of  it  is  as 
follows : 

After  starting  a  fire  in  the  apparatus,  a  steam  pressure  of  from 
two  to  three  pounds  should  be  maintained  for  a  short  period,  in 
order  to  drive  all  air  out  of  the  system  and  determine  whether  or 
not  it  is  free  from  leaks.  The  draught  door  of  the  boiler  is  then 
closed  and  the  temperature  at  the  boiler  falls.  As  the  steam  pres- 
sure is  removed  from  the  radiators,  the  automatic  air  valves  open 
and  the  air  endeavors  to  enter  the  system,  but  is  prevented  by  the 
mercury  seal.  However,  the  mercury  will  be  drawn  up  into  the 
tube  above  the  seal  to  a  height  representing  the  difference  between 
the  pressure  within  the  radiator  and  the  atmospheric  pressure 
without,  and  this  height  representing  inches  of  vacuum  will  be 
registered  by  the  compound  gauge. 

The  apparatus  may  then  be  operated  at  a  very  low  tempera- 
ture and  should  any  air  again  enter  the  system  it  is  easily  expelled 
by  raising  a  slight  pressure  of  steam  on  the  system. 

The  Ryan  System 

The  piping  for  the  Ryan  system  of  vacuum  heating  is  installed 
the  same  as  for  the  other  styles  making  use  of  air  pipes. 

An  air  trap  is  used  instead  of  mercury  for  sealing  the  system. 
The  main  air  line  connects  into  a  side  opening  in  the  trap,  which 
is  so  located  that  this  opening  is  27"  or  more  above  the  water  line 
of  the  apparatus.  A  drip  pipe  from  bottom  of  the  trap  con- 
necting into  the  return  below  the  water  line  of  the  boiler,  relieves 
it  of  all  water  carried  into  it  through  the  air  line.  At  the  top 
of  the  trap  is  the  opening  through  which  the  air  is  exhausted  and 
an  equalizing  pipe  from  boiler  is  also  connected  into  it  at  this  point. 

A  special  automatic  air  valve  is  used  on  each  radiator,  which 
closes  against  the  steam  and  opens  again  as  the  radiator  cools, 
permitting  the  exhausting  of  all  air  carried  into  the  radiator  by 
the  steam.  Fig.  164  shows  the  application  of  this  system. 

Vapor  Heating 

The  Broomell  System  is  distinctly  a  vapor  system,  the  tempera- 
ture never  exceeding  that  of  water  at  the  boiling  point,  namely 


VAPOR    AND    VACUUM    EXHAUST    HEATING     179 

degrees.  The  piping  for  this  system  while  smaller  than  used  for 
steam  has  the  appearance  of  the  piping  of  a  two-pipe  system,  the 
smaller  pipe  being  the  drip  through  which  the  air  and  water  of 
condensation  are  carried  back  to  the  boiler  through  an  apparatus 


FIG.  164. — The  Ryan  system  of  vacuum  heating. 

which  is  described  as  a  "  combined  receiver,  relief  apparatus  and 
draught  regulator."  A  few  loops  of  indirect  radiation  termed  a 
condensing  coil  are  located  adjacent  to  and  above  this  receiver  and 
a  connection  is  made  from  the  top  of  the  receiver  to  the  bottom 
of  the  coil.  From  the  top  of  this  coil  an  air  pipe  is  run  into  the 


180     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

chimney.  The  draught  in  the  chimney  exerts  a  pull  on  the  appa- 
ratus, causing  a  partial  vacuum  on  the  system,  which  not  only 
exhausts  the  air,  but  at  the  same  time  accelerates  the  flow  of  vapor 
through  the  radiators  and  coils.  The  pressure  on  this  system  is 
slightly  above  that  of  the  atmosphere  and  is  registered  in  ounces 
on  the  receiver.  See  Fig.  165.  This  receiver  is  the  real  heart  of 
the  system,  regulating  the  draughts  of  the  boiler  by  a  ball-float 
attachment  and  acting  as  a  separator  and  equalizer  in  dividing  the 


FIG.  165. — Combined  receiver,  relief,  and  draught  regulator — 
.Broomell  system. 

return  water  and  the  air  which  accumulates  in  the  system,  and 
again  acting  as  a  relief  from  any  overpressure  at  the  boiler.  It 
can  be  so  adjusted  as  a  regulator  that  the  draught  doors  of  the 
boiler  will  close  under  the  slightest  pressure. 

Hot-water  radiators  are  used  with  this  system.  The  supply 
is  connected  at  the  top  of  one  end  by  what  is  termed  a  quintuple 
valve,  that  is,  a  valve  having  four  holes  or  ports  through  the  disc, 
which  engage  with  similar  ports  in  the  bottom  or  seat  of  the  valve. 


VAPOR    AND    VACUUM    EXHAUST    HEATING     181 


Thus  it  may  be  entirely  closed  or  opened  one,  two,  three  or  four 
ports,  thereby  fully  regulating  the  amount  of  heat  or  vapor  de- 
livered to  each  radiator.  At  the  bottom  of  the  opposite  end  of 
the  radiator — the  return  end — the  air  and  return  pipes  are  con- 


FIG.  166. — The  Broomell  system  of  vapor  heating. 

nected  by  a  specially  constructed  union  elbow,  which,  while  allow- 
ing all  air  and  water  to  escape  from  the  radiator,  is  closed  against 
any  pressure  on  the  return  line. 

It  is  recommended  that  the  same  amount  of  radiation  be  in- 
stalled as  would  be  used  for  hot-water  heating.  Fig.  166  clearly 
illustrates  the  installation  of  this  system. 

Vacuum- Vapor  Systems 

There  are  some  systems  of  heating  at  a  pressure  below  that 
of  the  atmosphere,  which  embody  some  of  the  principles  of  both 
the  vacuum  and  the  vapor  systems,  and  these  are  aptly  called 
vacuum-vapor  heating  systems.  Representing  this  style  of  heating 
we  have  the  Gorton  System  and  the  Vacuum  Vapor  Company's 
System. 


182     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


The  Gorton  System 

With  the  regular  system  of  vacuum  heating  it  is  not  possible 
to  regulate  the  heat  in  any  single  radiator  except  by  automatic 
heat  control.  With  the  regular  vapor  system  the  heat  in  each  in- 
dividual radiator  may  be  controlled,  but  it  is  not  possible  to  attain 
a  temperature  on  the  apparatus  of  over  212°  to  215°;  therefore 
the  radiators  must  be  larger  than  would  be  required  for  steam. 
The  Gorton  System  is  capable  of  heating  under  a  vacuum  or  at 
ten  pounds  pressure. 

The  method  of  piping  used  is  practically  the  two-pipe  system. 
An  ordinary  or  a  special  type  of  a  radiator  valve  is  used  on  the 


PIG.  167. — Cross  section  of  Gorton  auto- 
matic drainage  valve. 


FIG.  168. — Cross  section  of  Gorton 
automatic  relief  valve. 


supply  end  of  the  radiator.  The  radiators  may  be  built  for  steam 
or  hot  water.  On  the  return  end  is  placed  an  automatic  drainage 
valve — Fig.  167.  When  the  radiator  valve  is  opened  the  drainage 
valve  opens  sufficiently  so  that  all  air  and  the  water  of  condensation 
pass  into  the  return  pipe  and  down  to  the  automatic  relief  vah 


VAPOR    AND    VACUUM    EXHAUST    HEATING     183 

Fig.  168 — where  the  air  is  exhausted  and  the  water  returns  to  the 
boiler.  The  relief  valve  is  operated  by  the  difference  in  pressure 
between  the  steam  and  the  return  mains.  It  opens  to  relieve  the 
air  just  as  soon  as  the  air  in  the  return  main  increases  the  pres- 
sure, when,  having  relieved  the  system,  it  will  again  close. 

This  system  has  the  advantage  of  a  wide  range  of  temperature, 
the  use  of  steam  or  hot-water  radiators  and  the  ability  to  control 
the  heat  in  any  one  radiator.  It  has  this  disadvantage,  however, 
that  it  is  applicable  only  to  two-pipe  work. 

Fig.  169  shows  a  view  of  the  correct  position  of  the  automatic 
relief  valve  and  the  pipe  connections  at  the  boiler.  The  return 


Relief  PFpe  1 V 


:r- i 


e::-n::^: 

__i 
—  i 

- 
— 

__ 

J  Return    A" 

HM 

BOILER 

; 

IT 

~~  "^-~                             —  < 

-i^__ 

FIG.  169. — Gorton  system  of  vacuum-vapor  heating. 

mains  may  be  connected  above  the  water  line,  as  shown,  or  they 
may  drop  as  indicated  by  dotted  lines  on  Fig.  169  and  be  con- 
nected below  the  water  line.  The  lowest  point  of  return  mains 
should  be  at  least  18"  above  the  water  line  of  the  boiler,  and  the 
relief  pipe  should  be  4"  above  the  return  mains.  The  automatic 
relief  valve  is  connected  to  the  relief  pipe  and  to  the  steam  main  as 
shown. 

The  Vacuum-Vapor  System 

The  vacuum-vapor  method  may  be  applied  to  almost  any  style 
of  piping.  The  special  appliances  necessary  are  an  air  trap,  a 
float  valve  and  an  ejector. 

A  condensing  radiator  is  used  as  shown  on  Fig.   170.     The 


184     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


VAPOR    AND    VACUUM    EXHAUST    HEATING     185 

air  lines  containing  vapor  and  more  or  less  water  are  discharged 
into  the  condensing  radiator  by  means  of  an  ejector.  This  ejector 
is  connected  directly  to  the  boiler  or  steam  main,  from  which  it 
receives  the  necessary  force  to  operate  it.  The  air  and  water 
pass  through  the  return  outlet  of  the  condensing  radiator,  the 
water  of  condensation  returning  to  the  boiler  by  gravity.  The 
air  passes  through  the  air  trap  and  thence  to  the  float  or  vacuum 
valve  and  into  the  atmosphere. 

In  other  respects  this  system  is  similar  to  those  already  de- 
scribed. 

The  Dunham  Vacno-Vapor  System 

A  method  of  vacuum  heating  styled  "  Vacuo-Vapor  "  has  been 
developed  by  Mr.  C.  A.  Dunham,  which  is  in  some  respects  both 
novel  and  interesting,  mainly  in  that  the  appliances  employed 
maintain  a  constant  difference  in  pressure  between  the  steam  or 
flow  pipe  and  the  return  pipe  without  any  mechanical  means.  The 
maintenance  of  this  difference  in  pressure  proves  of  great  assist- 
ance to  the  circulation  on  the  regular  gravity  system  of  steam 
heating. 

Like  many  of  the  vacuum  systems,  air  valves  on  the  radiators 
are  dispensed  with,  the  air  and  return  water  of  condensation  being 
taken  to  the  basement  into  a  small  tank  hung  18"  or  more  above 
the  regular  water  line  of  the  boiler.  A  drip  from  this  tank  drops 
to  the  return  opening  of  the  boiler,  the  water  of  condensation  re- 
turning to  the  boiler  through  this  drip,  which  has  a  horizontal 
check  valve  on  it  near  to  the  boiler.  The  condensation  in  entering 
the  tank  passes  through  a  horizontal  check  placed  on  the  return 
near  the  tank.  The  air,  separated  from  the  water  in  the  tank, 
passes  through  a  thermostatic  and  vacuum  air  valve  to  the  at- 
mosphere. 

An  air  trap,  Fig.  170A,  is  placed  on  the  return  end  of  each 
radiator,  remaining  open  when  cold  and  closing  as  soon  as  the 
heated  vapor  or  steam  reaches  it.  The  closed  trap  retards  the 
steam  until  the  water  of  condensation  collects  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  operate  the  trap,  when  it,  together  with  the  accumulated  air, 
passes  through  the  returns  to  the  separating  tank. 

When  the  system  is  working  above  atmospheric  pressure,  the 


186     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

accumulated  air  passes  freely  through  the  air  trap  or  thermostatic 
air  valve  and  the  vacuum  air  valve  above  the  tank,  the  water  con- 
tinuing to  collect  in  the  tank  until  such  an  amount  has  been  evapo- 
rated from  the  boiler  as  will  lower  the  water  line  below  the  end  of 
the  equalizing  pipe.  This  equalizing  pipe  forms  a  loop  approxi- 
mately four  feet  in  length  connecting  the  receiving  tank  with  the 
boiler,  the  end  of  the  loop  entering  the  boiler  through  an  opening, 
tapped  for  the  purpose,  and  extending  below  the  water  line. 

This  permits  live  steam  to  enter  the  loop,  equalizing  the  pres- 
sure between  the  tank  and  the  boiler,  permitting  the  water  to  flow 


FIG.  170A. — Air  trap  Dunham  vacuo-vapor  system. 

down  into  the  return  pipes  and  through  the  check  valves  into  the 
boiler.  This  action  again  raises  the  water  line  above  the  bottom 
of  the  loop  or  equalizing  pipe,  effectually  sealing  it. 

The  partial  vacuum  created  by  the  condensing  of  the  steam 
in  the  tank  after  the  discharging  process,  relieves  the  pressure 
against  the  check  valves  on  the  return  pipes,  allowing  the  accu- 
mulated air  and  water  to  enter  the  tank,  and  relieving  the  returns 
of  any  pressure,  as  the  partial  vacuum  reaches  to  the  radiators. 

To  obtain  the  most  economical  results  from  a  system  of  this 
character,  the  supply  valves  on  the  radiators  should  be  opened  only 
enough  to  admit  sufficient  steam  to  properly  heat  the  room,  the 
pressure  at  the  boiler  being  slightly  above  that  of  the  atmosphere 
and  not  greater  than  one  pound.  The  fire  should  be  banked  at 
night  and  the  system  operated  under  a  vacuum. 

Fig.  170B  shows  the  application  of  this  system  for  ordinary 
low-pressure  work.  Smaller  piping  is  employed  than  that  used  on 


VAPOR    AND    VACUUM    EXHAUST    HEATING     187 

a  regular  steam  job.  The  return  connections  from  all  radiators 
should  be  !/•>"  in  size,  and  the  supply  end  of  radiators  tapped  up 
to  50  sq.  ft.  %",  50  to  90  sq.  ft.  1",  90  to  185  sq.  ft.  1%". 

A  special  form  of  this  system  is  devised  for  larger  jobs,  using 
live  or  exhaust  steam,  the  regular  form  of  air  trap  being  employed 


FIG.  170B. — Dunham  system  for  low  pressure. 

on  all  radiators,  and  an  air  relief  and  pump  governor  or  con- 
troller, which  acts  as  a  receiver  for  all  condensation,  is  placed  near 
the  pump  and  is  so  connected  that  the  pump  may  assist  the  cir- 
culation by  pulling  directly  on  the  returns. 


188     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

The  Future  of  Vacuum  Heating 

But  a  few  years  ago  (1895)  a  heating  engineer  made  use  of 
the  following  expression  in  discussing  the  future  of  the  heating 
business  before  a  trade  association : 

"  If  you  can  circulate  a  system  below  atmosphere  in  a  large 
building  you  can  certainly  circulate  it  below  atmosphere  in  a 
dwelling  house.  If  you  can  circulate  it  below,  how  much  below 
can  you  circulate  it?  It  is  possible  that  in  a  few  years  from  now 
we  will  be  heating  houses  not  by  hot  water  but  by  steam  below 
atmospheric  pressure,  of  such  a  low  temperature  that  it  gives  all 
of  the  advantages  of  hot  water  without  any  of  its  disadvantages." 

His  prediction  is  now  an  accepted  fact  and  vacuum  and  vapor 
heating,  as  we  may  observe  by  following  up  the  many  ideas  and  the 
many  systems  already  before  us,  have  by  the  use  of  various  devices 
described  on  the  preceding  pages  become  adaptable  to  any  size  of 
residence  or  building. 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

MISCELLANEOUS  HEATING 

The  Heating  of  Swimming  Pools 

THE  simplest  method  of  heating  an  open  body  of  water  such 
as  a  swimming  pool  or  tank  is  by  hot-water  circulation.  The 
heater  should  be  placed  sufficiently  below  the  level  or  surface  of  the 
water  that  a  natural  circulation  may  be  established  between  the 
heater  and  the  tank.  Fig.  171  shows  an  apparatus  of  this  kind. 
The  swimming  pool  illustrated  contains  approximately  30,000  gal- 
lons of  water  when  filled  to  the  normal  water  level.  The  size  of 
flow  pipe  leaving  the  heater  should  be  6"  and  this  should  supply 
two  4"  feed  or  flow  pipes  to  the  pool.  These  may  be  connected  to 
it  at  points  about  18"  below  the  water  line,  the  first  pipe  entering 
the  pool  about  midway  of  its  length,  the  last  pipe  entering  well 
toward  the  shallow  end. 

The  return  pipes  should  be  connected  from  the  deep  end  of 
the  pool  at  a  point  about  6"  from  the  bottom.  The  direction  of 
the  circulation  of  the  water  is  indicated  by  the  arrows  shown  on 
the  illustration.  The  heater  must  be  so  set  that  the  return  open- 
ings in  it  are  at  least  12"  below  the  bottom  of  the  water  in  the 
pool. 

Fig.  172  is  an  elevation  plan  of  the  same  apparatus  and  shows 
the  relative  heights  at  which  the  circulation  enters  and  leaves  the 
pool.  Some  engineers  favor  the  method  of  having  the  flow  pipes 
enter  at  the  bottom  of  the  shallow  end  of  the  pool  and  the  taking 
of  the  returns  out  of  the  bottom  of  the  deep  end.  This  is  not  as 
good  a  plan  as  that  which  we  illustrate  by  Fig.  171.  With  an 
apparatus  installed  in  this  manner  the  cross  currents  in  the 
circulation  thoroughly  excite  and  warm  all  portions  of  the 
pool. 

189 


190     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


In  estimating  heating  capacity  for  work  of  this  character  it  is 
safe  to  assume  that  each  100  sq.  ft.  of  heater  capacity  will  warm 
1,000  gallons  of  water  from  40  degrees  to  90  degrees  in  from  six 


I 


to  eight  hours.     Thus  a  5,000-gallon  tank  would  require  a  500-ft. 
hot-water  heater  to  properly  do  the  work.     As  the  tank  capacity 


MISCELLANEOUS    HEATING 


191 


192     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


is  increased  in  size  the  relative  size  of  heater  may  be  somewhat 
decreased  as  shown  by  the  following  table: 


TABLE  XVIII 


Capacity  of  Pool  or 
Tank—  Gallons. 

Rated  Capacity  of 
Hot-water  Heater— 
Sq.  Ft. 

Capacity  of  Pool  or 
Tank  —  Gallons. 

Rated  Capacity  of 
Hot-  water  Heater  — 
Sq.  Ft. 

5,000 

500 

40,000 

3,450 

10,000 

950 

45,000 

3,800 

15,000 

1,350 

50,000 

4,200 

20,000 

1,800 

55,000 

4,600 

25,000 

2,200 

60,000 

5,000 

30,000 

2,550 

70,000 

6,000 

35,000 

2,950 

80,000 

6,800 

There  are  many  circumstances  which  would  vary  the  above 
figures  considerably.  However,  those  given  are  sufficiently  accurate 
for  estimating  and  represent  the  gross  rating  of  cast-iron  hot- 
water  heaters  as  listed  by  any  one  of  the  reliable  manufacturers 
and  whose  named  ratings  may  be  accepted  as  correct. 

It  is  a  frequent  occurrence  to  find  that  the  necessary  depth 
for  heater  room  cannot  be  procured,  owing  to  low  ground,  trouble 
with  drainage,  etc.  In  a  case  of  this  kind  it  is  necessary  to  make 
use  of  steam  for  heating  the  water  and  an  apparatus  of  this  kind 
is  somewhat  more  complicated  than  the  one  for  hot  water  already 
described.  Where  the  steam  is  obtained  from  pure  water,  the  pool 
may  be  heated  by  blowing  live  steam  into  the  water  through  an 
orifice  of  the  nature  of  an  injector.  A  large  circulating  pipe  is 
arranged  at  the  deep  end  of  the  pool  as  shown  by  Fig.  173.  At 
the  top  connection  a  reducing  tee  is  used,  as  shown,  in  making  the 
injector.  This  not  only  heats  the  water  but  causes  also  a  circulation 
through  the  large  pipe  in  the  manner  shown.  Where  it  has  been 
correctly  used  this  arrangement  has  proven  to  be  very  successful. 

In  the  event  of  heating  a  large  body  of  water,  say  40,000  gal- 
lons or  more,  it  is  well  to  use  two  circulating  pipes  and  injectors 
and  they  should  each  be  placed  at  the  deep  end  of  the  pool  about 
from  18"  to  20"  from  each  corner.  The  manner  of  circulation 
of  the  water  in  the  pool  is  shown  on  the  illustration  Fig.  173. 

When  making  use  of  the  injector  method  the  greater  the  pres- 
sure of  the  steam  the  more  quickly  a  circulation  may  be  established 


MISCELLANEOUS    HEATING 


193 


and  the  water  heated.     For  this  work  we  recommend  a  boiler  on 
which  a  pressure  of  from  30  to  60  pounds  may  be  maintained. 

The  usual  practice  is  to  clean  and  refill  a  swimming  pool  about 
once  in  each  week  or  ten  days,  depending  somewhat  upon  the  num- 


i 


her  of  bathers  using  it.  To  keep  the  water  as  pure  as  possible 
during  this  period  there  is  generally  a  small  stream  of  fresh  water 
entering  the  pool  constantly,  and  the  overflow  openings  of  the 


194     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


pool  empty  the  excess  water.  Therefore,  it  will  be  seen  that  it 
is  but  once  in  a  period  ranging  from  six  to  ten  days  that  the  full 
volume  of  water  in  the  pool  has  to  be  heated.  For  this  reason  the 
steam-injector  principle  is  the  most  economical  as  the  excess  of 
boiler  power  may  be  put  to  other  uses,  such  as  heating  a  tank  of 
water  for  domestic  uses  or  for  shower  baths. 

In  determining  the  size  of  boiler  power  the  conditions  of  the 
work  must  be  considered.  A  safe  estimate  is  one-horse  power  of 
boiler  capacity  for  each  2,500  gallons  of  water. 

Still  another  method  whereby  steam  can  be  employed  for  heat- 
ing a  pool  is  shown  by  Fig.  174.  Coils  of  this  nature  are  placed 


Steam  Supply 


Return 


FIG.  174. — Heating  swimming  pool  with  steam  coils. 

in  recesses  along  the  sides  and  end  of  the  pool,  the  condensation 
returning  to  the  boiler  room,  where  it  is  pumped  into  the  boiler  or 
fed  to  it  by  an  injector  or  return  trap. 

Owing  to  the  large  amount  of  condensation  in  coils  when 
used  in  this  manner,  it  is  well  to  use  a  header  or  branch  tee  coil 
and  to  make  the  runs  as  short  as  possible. 

Heating  Water  for  Domestic  Purposes 

A  class  of  heating  now  largely  practiced  is  that  of  heating 
water  for  domestic  purposes.  In  the  cities  and  towns  of  any  con- 
siderable size  we  find  numbers  of  flat  or  apartment  buildings  and  it 


MISCELLANEOUS    HEATING 


195 


is  customary  in  the  better  class  of  these  buildings  to  furnish  the 
various  apartments  with  hot  water  from  a  central  supply  tank 
located  in  the  basement.  Such  a  tank  is  called  a  storage  tank. 
There  are  two  methods  of  heating  the  water,  first  by  means  of  a 
small  hot-water  heater,  called  a  tank  heater,  which  is  directly  con- 
nected to  the  tank,  and  second  by  means  of  a  steam  coil  within 
the  tank.  Such  an  apparatus  becomes  a  part  of  the  heating  speci- 
fications and  the  methods  as  generally  adopted  should,  therefore, 
be  understood  by  the  heating  contractor. 

Storage  tanks  are  made  in  two  styles,  namely,  horizontal  and 
vertical.     The  horizontal  tank  is  usually  hung  from  the  first-floor 


FIG.  175. — Domestic  hot-water  supply — horizontal  tank. 

joists  by  means  of  wrought-iron  straps  or  hangers,  or  it  may  rest 
on  brick  piers.  The  vertical  tanks  are  supported  by  cast-iron  legs 
provided  for  the  purpose.  We  have  found  the  latter  method  to 
be  better,  as  the  weight  of  a  large  tank  full  of  water  is  liable  to 
strain  the  joists  from  which  it  is  suspended,  unless  hung  very  close 
to  a  supporting  wall. 

Fig.  175  illustrates  the  method  of  hanging  a  horizontal  tank 
and  making  the  heater  connections,  and  Fig.  176  shows  the  method 
of  setting  and  connecting  the  vertical  tank.  In  making  use  of  the 
latter  method  the  tank  should  stand  sufficiently  high  so  that  the 
bottom  of  it  is  above  the  return  opening  of  the  tank  heater,  as 
the  return  pipe  is  connected  to  opening  in  the  bottom  of  the  tank. 


196     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

When  steam  boilers  are  employed  in  heating  the  building  or 
when  steam  is  obtained  from  a  central  heating  plant  the  water 
may  be  heated  by  means  of  a  steam  coil  within  the  tank,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  177.  Black  iron  or  steel  pipe  should  never  be  used  for 
this  purpose,  owing  to  liability  of  rust  or  corrosion.  The  coil 
should  be  made  of  galvanized  iron  or  copper  pipe,  the  latter  being 


Draw-ofl' 


Tank  Heater 
FiO.   176. — Domestic  hot-water  supply — vertical  tank. 

preferable,  and  it  should  be  well  braced  or  stayed  in  order  that 
the  expansion  and  contraction  will  not  loosen  it. 

'The  tank  may  also  be  double  connected,  that  is,  directly  con- 
nected, to  a  tank  heater  for  use  in  the  summer  months  and  provided 
with  a  coil,  and  connected  to  the  steam  boiler  in  order  that  steam 
may  be  utilized  for  heating  in  cold  weather.  This  method  makes 
a  very  satisfactory  arrangement. 

In  determining  the  size  or  capacity  of  tank  required  several 
points  should  be  considered.     The  ordinary  tank  capacity  provided 


MISCELLANEOUS    HEATING 


197 


when  each  apartment  has  its  separate  supply  from  water  front 
in  range  is  thirty  gallons.  When  providing  for  apartments  hav- 
ing but  one  set  of  bathroom  fixtures,  it  will  be  found  that  an  al- 
lowance of  from  twenty  to  twenty-five-gallon-tank  capacity  for 


Hot  Water  Supply 


Draw-off-JT 
FIG.  177. — Storage  tank  with  steam  coil. 


each  apartment  will  prove  sufficient.  The  tank  heater  should  have 
a  capacity  of  from  20$  to  25$  greater  than  that  of  the  tank.  The 
following  table  shows  approximately  the  sizes  of  tank  and  heater 
necessary  for  from  four  to  thirty-six  apartments. 


TABLE  XIX 


Number  of 
Apartments. 

Capacity  of  Tank. 

Size  of  Tank. 

Heater  Capacity  — 
Size  of  Grate. 

4 

100  gallons 

22'xeo* 

78  sq. 

n. 

6 

120 

24*X60* 

78 

8 

180 

30^X60* 

113 

10 

215 

30/fX72/f 

132 

12 

250 

30*X84" 

176 

16 

365 

36"XS4/r 

254 

20 

430 

42"X72/r 

314 

24 

575 

42*X96" 

380 

36 

720 

42*  XI  20* 

452 

Should  the  tank  service  be  used  for  other  than  regular  domes- 
tic purposes,  additional  capacity  must  be  provided. 

The  manufacturers  of  storage  tanks  seldom  place  coils  in  them 
except  according  to  specifications  received  with  the  order ;  therefore, 
the  heating  contractor  must  specify  the  length  of  coil  or  number 


198     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


of  runs  of  pipe  desired  and  the  size  of  same.     As  a  basis  of  what 
is  required  the  following  table  will  prove  useful: 


TABLE  XX 


Size  of  Tank. 

Size  of  Coil. 

100  and  120  gaf. 
180    "    215    " 
250    "    365    " 
430    "    575    " 
720  gal. 

4     V    pipes 
6     V 

6     1M"    " 

4    \ys  " 

6     111"    " 

Steam  for  Cooking  and  Manufacturing  Purposes 

While  the  use  of  steam  for  cooking,  or  rather  the  adaptation 
of  certain  methods  for  accomplishing  this,  is  in  reality  no  part  of 
a  steam  fitter's  education,  we  wish  in  a  general  way  to  make  men- 
tion of  the  subject  in  this  chapter,  and  at  the  same  time  to  call 
attention  to  the  use  of  steam  for  manufacturing  purposes. 

No  large  hotel  or  restaurant  is  complete  in  its  equipment  with- 
out a  Steam  carving  table  and  in  most  of  the  hotel  and  restaurant 
kitchens  all  vegetables  are  cooked  by  steaming.  Meats  may  be 
cooked  or  roasted  in  ovens  made  for  the  purpose,  and  when  pre- 
pared in  this  manner,  meat  will  be  as  tender  as  would  be  a  pot- 
roast  cooked  in  the  usual  way  over  the  fire  of  a  kitchen  range,  and 
;will  lose  less  weight  in  cooking  than  when  roasted  in  an  oven.  Ap- 
pliances for  cooking  and  baking  are  marketed  by  the  builders  of 
such  apparatus  and  the  steam  fitter,  as  a  usual  thing,  has  simply 
to  make  certain  specified  pipe  connections  to  the  apparatus. 

The  usages  of  steam  for'  manufacturing  purposes  are  many 
and  varied  in  character.  Double-bottomed  kettles  for  the  use 
of  dyeing  establishments,  soap  making,  etc.,  and  for  heating  glue, 
paste  and  numerous  other  purposes  are  in  common  use.  For 
carpet  cleaning,  feather  renovating  and  drying,  in  hat  manufac- 
tories and  for  numerous  other  manufacturing  purposes,  steam 
is  employed  in  a  greater  or  lesser  quantity,  and  the  subject  would 
require  a  volume  to  illustrate  and  describe  the  various  fixtures  and 
fittings.  It  is  quite  probable  that  more  than  two  thirds  of  our 
manufactories  make  use  of  steam  for  purposes  other  than  the 
generation  of  power. 


CHAPTER    XIX 
Radiator  and  Pipe  Connections 

IN  those  chapters  of  this  book  having  reference  to  systems  or 
methods  of  piping  for  steam  or  hot-water  circulation  we  have  fre- 
quently made  mention  of  certain  styles  of  radiator  and  pipe  con- 
nections. We  shall  in  this  chapter  illustrate  and  explain  the  sev- 
eral modes  of  radiator  connections  and  show  the  method  of  using 
swing  or  expansion  joints  on  piping,  together  with  some  special 
forms  of  pipe  connections  which  are  made  desirable  by  conditions 
of  building  construction. 


Steam  Radiator  Connections 

Fig.  178  shows  the  most  simple  form  of  connecting  a  single 
steam  radiator  with  the  main.  The  illustration  shows  the  branch 
connection  taken  from  the  top  of  the  main  with  a  90°  elbow.  A 


f\ 


FIG.  178.— Simple  form  steam  radiator 
connection. 


FIG.  179. — Steam  radiator  connected 
from  riser. 


45°  elbow  at  this  point  would  be  preferable.  The  valve  should  be 
used  on  the  end  of  radiator  farthest  from  the  riser  or  branch 
in  order  to  provide  for  expansion.  When  a  radiator  is  connected 

199 


200     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

from  a  riser  on  single-pipe  steam  work  the  connection  should  be 
made  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  179.  This  is  known  as  a  "  stiff  "  con- 
nection and  when  used  in  this  manner  there  should  be  a  "  double 
swing  "  or  expansion  connection  at  the  base  of  the  riser.  In  order 


Double  Swing  Joint 


FIG.  180. — Double  swing  connection  at  bottom  of  riser. 


that  this  form  of  radiator  connection  may  be  thoroughly  under- 
stood we  illustrate  by  Fig.  180  a  riser  feeding  three  radiators,  all 
of  which  are  connected  with  stiff  joints.  The  radiator  on  the  first 
floor  is  connected  direct  from  riser  with  an  offset  valve ;  the  radi- 
ator on  the  second  floor  is  connected  by  a  stiff  joint,  as  described 


RADIATOR    AND    PIPE    CONNECTIONS 


201 


by  Fig.  179,  and  the  third-floor  radiator  is  connected  by  a  valve 
placed  directly  on  the  top  of  the  riser.     Note  the  double  swing  or 


FIG.  181. — Radiator  connected  with  expansion  joints. 

expansion  joints  at  the  base  of  the  riser.  When  the  riser  is  con- 
nected to  main  by  a  stiff  joint  on  the  branch,  all  radiators  fed  by 
it  should  be  connected  by  expansion  joints  as  shown  by  Fig.  181. 


Hot- Water  Radiator  Connections 

The  regular  form  of  connecting  a  single  hot-water  radiator 
from  main  and  to  the  return  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  182  and  needs  no 
further  explanation.  When  the  same  branch  feeds  a  riser,  as  well 
as  the  first-floor  radiator,  the  connection  should  be  made  as  shown 
by  Fig.  183.  There  is  always  a  tendency  for  hot  water  in  circu- 
lation to  rise  quickly  to  the  highest  radiator;  hence  the  connec- 
tion to  upper  radiator  should  be  taken  from  the  side  of  the  riser 
as  shown. 


202     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


<yr      © 

FIG.  182. — Hot-water  radiator  connection. 


FIG.  184. — Radiator  connection 
for  overhead  system. 


IS-TFLOOR 

RADIATOR, 


FIG.  183.— Radiator 
and  riser  fed  from 
pipe. 


3t 

T 

. 

tf 

n 

n 

n 

x-fi  —  •  

FIG.  186.— Flow  connected 
at  top  of  radiator. 


FIG.  185. — Connection  for  overhead  system — 
swing  joints. 


RADIATOR    AND    PIPE    CONNECTIONS 


203 


Fig.  184  shows  one  method  of  connecting  to  a  radiator  when 
the  riser  is  fed  from  above  by  the  overhead  system.  But  one  valve 
is  necessary  and  this  may  be  placed  either  on  the  flow  or  return 
connection.  In  order  to  make  the  connection  as  illustrated  the 
riser  must  be  carried  a  considerable  distance  from  the  wall.  We 
favor  the  use  of  a  swing  connection,  as  shown  by  Fig.  185,  in  order 
that  the  riser  may  be  run  well  against  the  wall  and  thus  make  a 
better  appearance. 

Some  fitters  favor  the  method  of  connecting  the  flow  into  the  top 
of  one  end  of  a  radiator  and  the  return  out  of  the  bottom  of  op- 
posite end.  There  are  some  cases  where  this  is  advisable,  but  on 
regular  hot-water  work  it  is  not  necessary.  By  Fig.  186  we  show 
the  manner  of  making  this  form  of  connection. 


Improper  Use  of  Tees 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  in  nearly  all  of  the  text  books 
on  steam  and  hot-water  heating  the  fitter  has  been  warned  against 
it,  and  that  writers  on  the  subject  have  repeatedly  condemned  the 
practice,  some  steam  fitters  will  persist  in  using  a  tee  "  bull  head," 


Tee  used  "Bull  Head 


Branch' 


kit  li 

Him 


Branch' 


FIG.  187. — Wrong  use  of  tee. 


as  illustrated  by  Fig.  187.  The  friction  caused  by  using  a  tee 
in  this  manner  must  be  apparent  even  to  a  person  unacquainted 
with  steam  or  hot-water  circulation.  This  is  more  noticeable  on 
hot-water  circulation  than  on  steam.  The  proper  style  of  fitting 
to  use  is  the  double  elbow,  illustrated  by  Fig.  120,  and  when  em- 


204     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

ployed  to  divide  a  main  into  two  branches  the  object  is  accomplished 
with  the  least  possible  amount  of  friction.  Fig.  188  as  compared 
with  Fig.  187  clearly  illustrates  this. 


Double  or  "Twin"  Ell 


Branch' 


1 


Branch' 


Main 


FIG.  188. — Double  ell  for  dividing  flow. 


Methods  of  Pipe  Construction 

When  a  steam  main  is  run  at  a  considerable  length  from  the 
boiler  it  frequently  happens  that  in  order  to  keep  the  end  of  it  a 
sufficient  distance  above  the  water  line  it  must  be  dripped  and 
raised  again  to  keep  at  the  height  necessary.  When  this  is  essen- 
tial the  connection  should  be  made  as  shown  by  Fig.  189.  The  main 


Main 
Aut.  Air  Valve 


\ 

^        /- 

1 

Mala/ 


Drip- 


FIG.  189. — Method  of  relieving  main. 


should  be  carried  a  short  distance  beyond  the  point  at  which  the 
rise  is  made,  arid  a  reducing  elbow  used  in  connecting  the  drip. 
This  elbow  should  be  tapped  and  fitted  with  an  automatic  air  valve, 


RADIATOR    AND    PIPE    CONNECTIONS 


205 


as  shown  by  the  illustration.  The  use  of  this  method  will  relieve 
the  main  of  much  friction  and  eliminates  the  use  of  a  tee  placed 
bullhead  on  the  end  of  main  at  point  where  drip  is  made.  On 
circuit  work  it  occasionally  happens  that  the  main  must  be  run 
very  low  owing  to  certain  wood  or  iron  beams  supporting  the 
joists.  When  it  is  possible  to  drip  the  main  and  rise  again  this 
difficulty  may  be  easily  overcome.  Frequently,  however,  the  base- 
ment is  put  to  such  use  that  a  drip  connection  cannot  be  made 


FIG.  190. — Method  of  crossing  beam  without  drip. 

or  will  not  be  permitted.  By  Fig.  190  we  illustrate  a  simple 
method  of  surmounting  this  difficulty,  which  we  think  is  self- 
explanatory.  Care  should  be  exercised  in  the  alignment  of  the 
main  on  either  side  of  the  beam. 


Artificial  Water  Line 

When  it  is  necessary  to  run  a  wet  return  under  a  building 
where  the  basement  or  a  portion  of  it  is  unexcavated,  it  is  some- 
times essential  to  create  what  is  known  as  a  "  false  water  line."  By 
this  is  meant  a  water  line  above  that  of  the  boiler  and  it  is  required 
in  order  that  the  return  may  be  kept  full  of  the  water  of  conden- 
sation. This  will  prevent  the  short-circuiting  of  steam  into  the 
return  and  thereby  cause  trouble  by  retaining  the  water  of  con- 
densation in  piping  or  radiators.  There  are  several  methods  of 
doing  this.  Fig.  191  illustrates  a  mode  quite  commonly  used,  and 
the  piping  as  arranged  works  all  right,  although  we  are  inclined 


806     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


FIG.  191.- 


method  of  establishing  a  fate  water  line. 


to  favor  the  method  illustrated  by  Fig.  192.     The  equalizing  pipe 
shown,  connecting  top  of  loop  with  the  main,  prcTents  any  false 


FIG.  ""      »-  ^  -      ..    .    * 


f  1         i 


register  due  to  unequal  pressure,  which  might  be  a  result  from  the 
use  of  the  method  as  first  illustrated. 


When  the  boiler  or  heater  capacity  of  a  heating  plant  is  di- 
vided the  boilers  or  heaters  should  be  so  valved  and  cross-con- 
nected that  either  of  them  may  be  used  independently  of  the  other. 


RADIATOR    AND    PIPE    CONNECTIONS 


207 


On  work  of  any  considerable  size  it  has  been  discovered  that 
as  a  matter  of  safety  and  economy  this  plan  is  advisable.  It  in- 
sures the  use  of  one  part  of  the  apparatus  in  the  event  of  an 
accident  occurring  to  the  other,  and  it  is  economical  from  the 
fact  that  in  mild  weather  or  with  &  portion  of  the  radiation  turned 
off  one  boiler  is  sufficient  to  furnish  the  amount  of  heat  desired- 
There  is  considerable  variance  of  opinion  as  to  the  utility  of  di- 
viding the  boiler  power.  Where  the  boiler  capacity  is  fuHy  large 


FIG. 


for  the  work  we  believe  that  a  considerable  saving  may  be  effected 
in  the  consumption  of  fuel  by  dividing  the  boiler  power  and  cross- 
connecting. 

The  methods  or  form  of  pipe  connections  in  accomplishing 
this  are  many  and  varied.  When  cross-connecting  steam  boilers 
it  is  well  to  use  an  equalizing  pipe  connecting  with  the  return 
header.  The  boilers  may  be  connected  as  shown  by  Fig.  193  or 
Fig.  194.  In  the  former  style  of  connection  angle  valves  are 
used  on  steam  supply,  while  in  the  latter  case  a  globe  valve  is 
placed  on  the  vertical  pipe  leading  from  each  boiler.  The  re- 
turns may  be  connected  as  shown  on  Fig.  194,  or  as  shown  on 
Fig.  195. 

When  cross-connecting  two  heaters  for  hot  water,  globe  or 
angle  valves  should  not  be  used  owing  to  the  obstruction  offered 


UhATlSK   ASV 


-  •     • 

,:-• 


•       .      . 

•--.-• 


• ,    * 


inetLod  of  e<*meetkig  the  flair  pipes,  while  that 
br  Fig-   1ST7  i*  an  eiceBeut  method  of  connecting  the  returns. 


FIG.  195. — Return  pipe  cross  connected. 

Should  i  h<-r<-  U  several  flow  openings  from  each  heater  they  should 
all  })(•  connected  into  a  main  header  from  which  the  supply  pipes 
for  the  building  are  taken. 


RADIATOR    AND    PIPE    CONNECTIONS 


209 


When  cross-connecting  two  steam  boilers  of  unequal  size  or 
height,  care  must  be  taken  to  place  them  in  such  relative  positions 


•Flow 


Hot  Water 
Thermometer 


FIG.  196. — Cross-connecting  hot-water  boilers. 

that  the  normal  water  line  of  one  is  on  a  level  with  that  of  the 
other  boiler.     It  may  be  found  necessary  to  set  the  larger  boiler 


Return 
Draw-off 
Connection 


-off   [7^sn~ 

ction_4iV-iy_ 


Return 

Water 
Connection 


FIG.  197. — Cross-connecting  returns — hot-water  boilers. 


in  a  pit  or  to  place  the  smaller  one  upon  a  brick  foundation,  in 
order  to  level  the  water  lines. 


210     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


Pipe  Measurements  for  45-Degree  and  Other  Angles 

The  base  of  the  triangle  being  given  the  length  of  the  hy- 
pothenuse  may  be  determined  by  the  use  of  constant  multipliers 


/ 


>. 


FIG.  198.— Measuring  45°  angles. 

for  each  different  angle.     Fig.  198  illustrates  the  method.     The 
following  constants  are  the  multipliers. 

TABLE  XXI 


Angle  (line  B). 

Constants  (Multipliers). 

III? 

1.0196 

221/2° 

1.0824 

30° 

1  .  1547 

45° 

1.4143 

60° 

2.0000 

RULE. — To  determine  the  dimension  C  (the  hypothenuse), 
center  to  center  measure,  multiply  the  distance  A  by  the  constant 
opposite  the  angle  B. 


CHAPTER    XX 

VENTILATION 

Importance  of  Ventilation 

THE  need  or  importance  of  ventilation  has  been  recognized 
for  many  years.  Probably  the  first  effort  to  ventilate  a  room  of 
any  considerable  size  was  made  by  Dr.  J.  F.  Desaguliers,  as  briefly 
referred  to  in  the  introductory  pages  of  this  book,  who  in  1723 
arranged  a  ventilating  apparatus  for  the  British  House  of  Com- 
mons. This  apparatus  was  used  for  upward  of  eighty  years, 
being  replaced  early  in  the  nineteenth  century  by  a  system  of 
fans  propelled  by  hand.  These  fans  were  arranged  to  exhaust 
the  foul  air  at  the  top  of  the  building. 

Records  of  ventilation  by  means  of  bellows  or  blowers  by  the 
Romans  and  later  by  the  Germans  are  to  be  had.  Without  doubt, 
however,  the  British  attempt  marked  the  beginning  of  ventila- 
tion as  we  to-day  understand  and  use  the  term.  The  early  at- 
tempts at  ventilation  were  to  remove  the  air  vitiated  by  the 
exhalations  of  many  people  occupying  a  single  room  and  by  the 
candles  or  various  styles  of  lamps  used  for  lighting.  With 
the  advent  of  the  present-day  type  of  heating  apparatus  came  the 
greater  need  of  ventilation  in  order  not  only  to  exhaust  the  foul 
air  but  also  to  provide  a  supply  of  fresh  air  to  replace  that 
vitiated  by  the  breath  of  the  persons  occupying  a  building  and 
also  the  oxygen  consumed  by  lamps  or  gas  burners  for  illumina- 
tion. 

Oxygen  is  the  all-important  element  or  quality  of  the  atmos- 
phere and  without  it  we  can  have  neither  heat  nor  light.  It  is 
required  in  the  chemical  process  of  combustion  and  without  it  fuel 
will  not  burn.  It  is  necessary  to  sustain  life  and  without  its 
presence  all  living  beings  would  die.  The  atmosphere  we  breathe 
is  composed  principally  of  about  one  part  oxygen  to  four  parts 
of  nitrogen,  together  with  more  or  less  vapor  or  water  in  a  gaseous 

211 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

state  or  held  in  suspension  and  is  expressed  by  the  term  humidity. 
Oxygen  is  the  life-sustaining  quality  of  the  air,  which  is  diffused 
or  diluted  by  the  nitrogen.  The  percentage  of  watery  vapor 
present  varies  with  the  temperature  and  the  exposure  or  proximity 
to  a  body  of  water. 

There  is  also  present  in  the  atmosphere  carbon  dioxide  or  car- 
bonic-acid gas,  which  by  itself  is  not  particularly  harmful.  Under 
certain  conditions,  however,  it  is  detrimental  to  health,  not  from 
the  amount  usually  present  in  the  air,  which  ranges  but  from  two 
to  four  parts  in  10,000,  but  when  present  in  larger  quantities 
due  to  the  exhalations  from  the  lungs  oft  several  persons  con- 
gregated in  a  single  room.  It  then  produces  a  feeling  of  close- 
ness or  stuffiness,  causing  headaches  and  is  otherwise  detrimental 
to  health.  The  poisonous  matter  thrown  into  the  air  or  given 
off  by  our  bodies  is  also  the  source  of  great  danger  to  health. 
For  example,  confine  a  person  in  a  tight  inclosure.  That  person 
will  liye  as  long  as  there  is  oxygen  to  breathe,  depending  upon 
the  size  of  the  inclosure.  The  oxygen  will  eventually  be  con- 
sumed and  the  person  choke  or  suffocate,  being  poisoned  by  the 
carbonic-acid  gas  and  impurities  exhaled  from  his  own  body.  If 
our  exhalations  are  poisonous  to  ourselves  what  then  may  be  said 
of  the  risk  entailed  by  living  in  or  even  temporarily  occupying 
crowded  rooms,  such  as  offices,  workrooms,  or  places  of  amuse- 
ment where  we  are  breathing  the  foul  air  exhaled  from  the  lungs 
of  our  neighbors,  some  of  whom  may  be  suffering  from  tubercu- 
losis or  other  diseases  and  so  contaminate  the  air  with  the  germs 
of  such  diseases.  Not  a  very  pleasant  thought  but  true  never- 
theless and  the  fact  should  be  carefully  considered  by  every  think- 
ing person.  Ventilation  is  not  a  luxury — it  is  a  necessity. 

As  another  example,  enter  a  residence  temporarilv  occupied 
for  a  social  gathering.  Entering  the  building  from  outside  where 
the  air  is  pure  into  brilliantly  lighted  rooms  not  sufficiently  ven- 
tilated and  possibly  more  or  less  crowded  with  people,  a  feeling 
of  closeness,  stuffiness,  or  suffocation  is  at  once  apparent.  A 
person  not  strongly  constituted  or  in  good  health  may  in  a  short 
time  faint  from  lack  of  air,  while  a  stronger  individual  may 
perhaps  become  acclimated  and  soon  fail  to  notice  the  oppress- 
ing effects  of  the  foul  atmosphere  of  the  room. 


VENTILATION 


The  use  of  electricity  for  lighting  purposes  has  done  much 
toward  maintaining  the  purity  of  the  atmosphere  under  conditions 
as  cited  above.  Dr.  Tidy  after  exhaustive  tests  compiled  the 
following  table  showing  the  air  consumed  by  various  modes  of 
artificial  lighting  and  the  percentage  of  carbonic-acid  gas  given 
off  by  the  various  burners : 

TABLE  XXH 


Light  Producing  Material 
equal  to  12  Standard 
Candles. 

Cubic  Feet 
of  Oxygen 
Consumed. 

Cubic  Feet 
of  Air 
Consumed. 

Cubic  Feet 
of  Carbonic 
Acid  given 
off. 

Cubic  Feet 
of  Air 
Vitiated. 

Heat,  Equal 
Parts  of, 
raised  to 
10°  Fahr. 

Conunon  Gas 

5  45 

17  25 

3  21 

345  25 

278  6 

Sperm  Oil                  .... 

4.75 

23  75 

3.33 

356  75 

233  5 

Paraffin  

6.81 

34  05 

4.50 

484  05 

361  9 

Sperm  Candles  
Wax  Candles  
Electric  Light. 

7.51 
8.41 
None 

37.85 
42.05 
None 

5.77 
5.90 
None 

614.85 
632.25 
None 

351.7 
383.1 
13  8 

That  the  need  of  ventilation  has  long  been  recognized  by 
physicians,  scientists  and  engineers  is  shown  by  the  works  of  such 
men  as  Chas.  Hood,  London,  whose  writings  and  book  published 
in  1879  are  a  fair  treatise  of  the  subject.  Other  works  more  or 
less  practical  were  published  by  Dr.  D.  B.  Reid  (1844)  and  by 
Chas.  Tomlinson  (1864).  Probably  the  most  authentic  Ameri- 
can work  is  that  from  the  pen  of  Dr.  John  S.  Billings,  of  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  a  Surgeon  of  the  United  States  Navy,  whose  book 
on  warming  and  ventilation  is  accepted  as  a  standard  authority. 
Other  publications  by  Thos.  Box,  F.  Schuman,  C.E.,  Butler, 
Leeds,  and  the  authorities  mentioned  in  the  introduction  of  this 
book  will  repay  a  careful  reading. 

Air  Necessary  for  Ventilation 

What  amount  of  air  is  necessary  for  ventilation?  This  ques- 
tion may  be  answered  by  numerous  examples.  Perfect  ventila- 
tion might  be  said  to  be  the  exhausting  of  the  foul  air  and  the 
admitting  of  the  fresh  air  in  such  quantities  that  the  inhabitants 
of  a  room  or  building  would  never  inhale  the  same  air  twice,  or, 
in  other  words,  would  breathe  air  inside  the  building  of  the  same 
purity  as  that  on  the  outside.  Such  a  state,  however,  is  neither 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

practical  nor  necessary.  With  the  size  and  conditions  of  a  build- 
ing and  the  probable  number  of  occupants  known  it  is  possible 
to  estimate  very  closely  the  air  supply  necessary  to  maintain  a 
certain  standard  of  purity  of  the  air  within  the  building. 

Not  so  many  years  ago  a  fresh-air  supply  of  300  cubic  feet 
per  hour  per  person  was  considered  sufficient.  To-day  we  look 
upon  30  cubic  feet  per  minute  or  1,800  cubic  feet  per  hour  per 
person  as  being  the  minimum  supply  essential.  Dr.  Billings 
gives  the  hourly  air  supply  necessary  for  certain  requirements  as 
follows : 

TABLE  XXIII 


Cubic  Feet  per  Hour. 

Hospitals  .    .                                      .... 

3  600  per  Bed 

legislative  Assembly  Halls  

3,600  per  Seat 

Barracks,  Bedrooms  and  Workshops 

3  600  per  Person 

Schools  and  Churches.  .  . 

2  400  per  Person 

Theaters  and  Ordinary  Halls  of  Audience       

2  000  per  Seat 

Office  Rooms  

1,800  per  Person 

Dining  Rooms 

1  800  per  Person 

It  has  been  recently  stated  that  within  a  certain  congested 
district  in  the  City  of  New  York  there  are  70,000  consumptives. 
There  is  no  question  but  that  this  terrible  showing  is  due  to  the 
overcrowded  offices,  sleeping  rooms  and  workshops,  the  latter  more 
popularly  designated  as  sweat  shops,  where  the  admission  of 
only  a  very  small  percentage  of  air,  as  per  Dr.  Billings'  schedule, 
would  work  wonders  in  the  elimination  of  disease. 

The  average  individual  spends  one  third  of  his  or  her  life 
in  the  bed  or  sleeping  room.  Without  the  necessary  amount  of 
fresh  air  to  breathe  how  much  solid  rest  or  physical  relaxation 
may  we  enjoy?  Sleeping  rooms  should,  therefore,  be  well  ven- 
tilated and  this  may  usually  be  accomplished  by  the  thorough 
airing  of  the  sleeping  room  during  the  day  and  the  opening  of 
the  windows  at  night.  By  giving  the  matter  a  little  thought  and 
attention  the  bed  may  be  so  located  that  no  severe  draughts  are 
felt  by  the  occupants.  However,  to  properly  ventilate  the  room 
it  should  have  its  separate  pure-air  supply,  tempered  by  heating, 
and  a  ventilating  duct  leading  from  the  room  to  the  main  ven- 
tilating stack  of  the  building. 


VENTILATION  215 

Massachusetts  was  the  pioneer  among  the  states  to  enact  laws 
governing  the  heating  and  ventilating  of  public-school  buildings. 
A  fresh-air  supply  of  30  cubic  feet  per  person  per  minute  is 
demanded  and  this  commonwealth  maintains  a  Board  of  Engineers 
to  see  that  the  provisions  of  the  law  are  fulfilled.  The  laws  are 
imperative,  as  the  following  extracts  will  show: 

"  1.  The  apparatus,  with  proper  management,  is  to  heat  all 
the  rooms  including  the  corridors,  to  70°  Fahr.  in  any  weather." 

"  2.  With  the  rooms  at  70°  Fahr.  and  a  difference  of  not  less 
than  40°  Fahr.  between  the  temperature  of  the  outside  air  and 
that  of  the  air  entering  the  room  at  the  warm-air  inlet,  the  appa- 
ratus is  to  supply  at  least  30  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  for  each 
scholar  accommodated." 

"  3.  Such  supply  of  air  is  to  so  circulate  in  the  rooms  that  no 
uncomfortable  draught  will  be  felt,  and  the  difference  in  tempera- 
ture between  any  two  points  on  the  breathing  plane  in  the  occu- 
pied portion  of  a  room  is  not  to  exceed  3°  Fahr." 

We  have  italicized  such  portions  of  the  quotation  as  will  bring 
them  prominently  before  our  readers.  Other  States  have  enacted 
laws  quite  similar  and  with  the  standard  as  set  by  Massachusetts 
as  a  guide,  it  is  quite  an  uncommon  thing  to  find  at  this  date  a 
school  building  of  any  considerable  size  which  is  not  provided  with 
some  form  of  a  ventilating  apparatus  in  connection  with  the  heat- 
ing of  the  building. 

The  result  is  that,  as  a  rule,  our  children  attending  school  sit 
and  study  in  an  atmosphere  much  purer  than  that  within  the  ma- 
jority of  our  own  homes.  This  very  desirable  condition  relating  to 
the  ventilation  of  our  public  schools  is  due  to  two  distinct  causes. 
First,  the  writings  of  eminent  physicians,  scientists  and  heating 
and  ventilating  engineers,  who  having  noted  the  former  condition 
of  our  schools  and  other  public  or  semipublic  buildings  and  under- 
standing what  was  necessary  regarding  a  pure-air  supply,  have 
persistently  for  years  conducted  a  campaign  for  pure  air.  Dis- 
cussions of  the  subject  by  engineering  societies,  articles  in  the  pub- 
lic press,  books  written  and  published  in  the  interests  of  better  heat- 
ing and  ventilating  apparatus  all  had  their  weight  and  all  have 
assisted  materially  in  bringing  about  the  improved  conditions. 

The  second  cause  of  the  changed  conditions  may  be  credited  to 


216     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

those  manufacturers  of  ventilating  necessities  such  as  fans,  heaters, 
blowers,  etc.,  who  have  for  several  years  spread  broadcast  expen- 
sive catalogues  and  much  other  literature  and  who  maintain  a 
corps  of  engineers  to  assist  architects  and  builders  in  the  proper 
arrangement  and  equipment  of  buildings  for  heating  and  ventilat- 
ing. Aside  from  the  monetary  considerations  and  profits  accru- 
ing from  such  work,  there  is  a  satisfaction  which  all  must  expe- 
rience when  they  are  contributing  to  the  health  and  happiness  of 
thousands  of  human  beings. 

There  is  still  much  to  be  desired,  but  with  the  architects  alive 
to  the  situation  and  the  public  aware  of  the  results  possible  to 
be  obtained,  we  shall  witness  very  few  school  buildings  erected 
without  the  provision  of  an  adequate  heating  and  ventilating 
apparatus. 

All  government  buildings  and  practically  all  theaters  and 
places  of  amusement  now  planned  and  erected  are  provided  with 
ventilating  apparatus  and  the  campaign  for  the  ventilating  of 
shops  and  factories  is  well  under  way. 

Probably  no  clearer  idea  of  the  air  required  for  ventilation  can 
be  had  than  that  given  by  the  B.  F.  Sturtevant  Company,  which 
we  reproduce  in  part. 

"  AMOUNT  or  AIR  REQUIRED  FOR  VENTILATION. — Under  the 
general  conditions  of  outdoor  air,  namely,  70°  temperature  and  70 
per  cent  of  complete  saturation,  an  average  adult  man,  when  sit- 
ting at  rest  as  in  an  audience,  makes  16  respirations  per  minute 
of  SO  cubic  inches  each,  or  480  cubic  inches  per  minute.  Under  the 
previously  assumed  conditions  of  70°  temperature  and  70  per  cent 
humidity,  the  air  thus  inhaled  will  consist  of  about  J  oxygen  and 
J  nitrogen,  together  with  about  1^  per  cent  aqueous  vapor  and 
yf0-  of  a  per  cent  carbonic  acid.  By  the  process  of  respiration  the 
air  will,  when  exhaled,  be  found  to  have  lost  about  J  of  its  oxygen 
by  the  formation  of  carbonic  acid,  which  will  have  increased  about 
one  hundredfold,  thus  forming  about  4  per  cent,  while  the  water 
vapor  will  form  about  5  per  cent  of  the  volume.  In  addition,  the 
'inhaled  air  will  have  been  warmed  from  70°  to  90°,  and,  notwith- 
standing the  increased  proportion  of  carbonic  acid — which  is  about 
one  and  one  half  times  heavier  than  air — will,  owing  to  the  increase 
of  temperature  and  the  levity  of  the  water  vapor,  be  about  3  per 


VENTILATION 

cent  lighter  than  when  inhaled.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  this 
vitiated  air  will  not  fall  to  the  ground,  as  has  often  been  presumed, 
but  will  naturally  rise  above  the  level  of  the  breathing  line,  and  the 
carbonic  acid  will  immediately  diffuse  itself  into  the  surrounding 
air.  In  addition  to  the  carbonic  acid  exhaled  in  the  process  of  res- 
piration, a  small  amount  is  given  off  by  the  skin.  Furthermore, 
11/2  to  2%  Ibs.  of  water  are  evaporated  daily  from  the  surface  of 
the  skin  of  a  person  in  still  life.  If  the  air  supply  at  70°  is  as- 
sumed to  have  a  humidity  of  70  per  cent  and  to  be  saturated  when 
it  leaves  the  body  at  a  higher  temperature,  then  at  least  four 
cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  will  be  required  to  carry  away  this 
vapor. 

"  Taking  into  consideration  these  various  factors,  it  becomes 
evident  that  at  least  4%  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  will  be  required 
per  minute  for  respiration  .and  for  the  absorption  of  moisture  and 
dilution  of  carbonic-acid  gas  from  the  skin.  This,  however,  is 
only  on  the  assumption  that  any  given  quantity  of  air  having  ful- 
filled its  office,  is  immediately  removed  without  contamination  of 
the  surrounding  atmosphere ;  but  this  condition  is  impossible,  for 
the  spent  air  from  the  lungs,  containing  about  400  parts  of  car- 
bonic-acid gas  in  10,000,  is  immediately  diffused  in  the  atmos- 
phere. The  carbonic-acid  gas  does  not  fall  to  the  floor  as  a 
separate  gas,  but  is  intimately  mixed  with  the  air  and  equally 
distributed  throughout  the  apartment. 

"  It  must  then  be  evident  that  ventilation  is  in  effect  but  a 
process  of  dilution  and  that  when  the  vitiation  of  the  air  discharged 
from  the  lungs  is  known  and  the  degree  of  vitiation  to  be  main- 
tained in  the  apartments  is  decided,  the  necessary  constant  supply 
of  fresh  air  to  maintain  this  standard  may  be  very  easily  deter- 
mined. For  the  purpose  of  calculation,  0.6  cubic  foot  per  hour  is 
accepted  as  the  aArerage  production  of  carbonic  acid  by  an  adult 
at  rest  and  the  proportion  of  this  gas  in  the  external  air  as  4  parts 
in  10,000.  If,  therefore,  the  degree  of  vitiation  of  the  occupied 
room  be  maintained  at,  say,  6  parts  in  10,000,  there  will  be  per- 
missible an  increment  of  only  2  parts  in  10,000  above  that  of  the 
normal  atmosphere,  or  2-10,000  =  .0002  of  a  cubic  foot  of  car- 
bonic acid  in  each  cubic  foot  of  air.  The  0.6  cubic  foot  of  car- 
bonic acid  produced  per  hour  by  a  single  individual  will,  therefore, 


218      PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


require  for  its  dilution  to  this  degree  0.6  -r-  .0002  =  3,000  cubic 
feet  of  air  per  hour.  Upon  this  basis  the  following  table  has  been 
calculated : 

TABLE  XXIV 

CUBIC  FEET  OF  AIR  CONTAINING  FOUR  PARTS  OF  CARBONIC  ACID  IN 
TEN  THOUSAND  SUPPLIED  PER  PERSON 


Per  Hour.  .  . 

6,000 

4,000 

3,000 

2,400 

2,000 

1,800 

1,714 

1,500 

1,200 

1,000 

525 

375 

231 

Per  Min.... 

100 

66.6 

50 

40 

33.3 

30 

28.6 

25 

20 

16.6 

9.1 

6.2 

3.8 

.DEGREE  OF  VITIATION  OF  THE  AIR  IN  THE  ROOM 

Parts  of  Car- 

bonic Acid 

in  10,000.  . 

5 

K      K 

o  .  o 

6 

6.5 

7 

7.33 

7.5 

8 

9 

10 

15 

20 

30 

"  The  figures  indicate  absolute  relations  under  the  stated  condi- 
tions, and  are  generally  applicable  to  the  ventilation  of  schools, 
churches,  halls  of  audience  and  the  like,  where  the  occupants  are 
reasonably  healthy  and  remain  at  rest.  But  the  absolute  air  volume 
to  be  supplied  cannot  be  specified  with  certainty  in  advance,  with- 
out a  thorough  knowledge  of  all  the  conditions  and  modifying 
circumstances — in  fact,  the  climate,  the  construction  of  the  build- 
ing, the  size  of  the  rooms,  the  number  of  occupants,  their  healthful- 
ness  and  their  activity,  together  with  the  time  during  which  the 
rooms  are  occupied,  all  have  their  direct  influences.  Under  all 
these  considerations,  it  is  readily  seen  that  no  standard  allowance 
can  be  made  to  suit  all  circumstances,  and  results  will  be  satisfac- 
tory only  in  so  far  as  the  designer  understandingly,  with  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  various  requirements  as  they  have  here  been  given, 
makes  such  allowance." 

Methods  of  Ventilation 

A  building  may  be  properly  ventilated  only  when  adequate 
provision  has  been  made  by  the  architect  and  builder  of  such 
stacks,  flues  or  ducts  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  use  of  the  sys- 
tem of  ventilation  to  be  adopted.  There  are  two  general  methods 
of  producing  ventilation,  namely,  natural  and  mechanical.  Nat- 
ural ventilation  as  expressed  and  understood  is  caused  by  ducts 
so  constructed  that  the  velocity  of  the  outside  air  or  difference 


VENTILATION 

in  temperatures  produces  a  change  of  air  within  a  building.  This 
method  by  itself  is  quite  unsatisfactory,  but  when  assisted  by  heat- 
ing surfaces  placed  within  the  exhaust  flues  and  warming  the  en- 
tering air  by  passing  it  over  or  between  the  heated  surfaces  of 
radiators  in  a  manner  commonly  styled  indirect  heating,  is  pro- 
ductive of  fairly  good  results. 

This  method  is  shown  by  Figs.  96,  97  and  98.  These  radi- 
ators are  located  in  the  basement  of  the  building  and  connected 
to  the  supply  or  hot-air  register  by  a  galvanized-iron  duct,  the 
foul  air  being  exhausted  through  a  ventilating  duct  which  is 
heated  by  means  of  an  aspirating  coil  or  other  device.  The  enter- 
ing air  may  also  be  warmed  by  passing  between  the  surfaces  of 
a  direct  radiator,  the  bottom  of  which  rests  on  or  is  inclosed  in 
an  iron  boxing  connecting  with  and  receiving  air  through  a  duct 
from  outside  the  building.  This  air  is  passed  from  the  boxing 
upward  between  the  sections  of  the  radiator  into  the  room.  An 
arrangement  of  this  kind  is  styled  a  direct-indirect  or  semidirect 
radiator.  See  Fig.  101. 

By  placing  gas  jets,  a  pipe  coil  or  small  radiator  in  the  ven- 
tilating flue,  the  air  is  expanded,  creating  an  upward  current 
which  sucks  the  foul  air  from  the  room  into  the  duct.  This  sys- 
tem of  ventilating  may  be  so  arranged  as  to  be  entirely  adequate 
for  a  small  residence  or  a  larger  building  if  sparsely  occupied, 
and  may  be  employed  to  good  advantage  for  small  schools  or 
kindred  buildings,  although  as  a  usual  thing,  a  school  should  be 
provided  with  a  system  of  mechanical  ventilation,  of  which  we 
shall  speak  later  on. 

In  ventilating  the  living  rooms  of  a  residence  a  main  ventilat- 
ing shaft  should  be  provided,  centrally  located,  into  which  foul- 
air  ducts  from  the  various  rooms  should  be  connected.  In  this 
shaft  there  should  be  placed  an  aspirating  coil  connected  with  the 
house-heating  apparatus,  steam  or  hot  water,  for  use  during  the 
period  when  the  heating  apparatus  is  operated.  For  summer 
use  the  gas  supply  should  be  piped  into  the  shaft  and  one  or 
more  gas  burners  attached.  An  opening  into  the  shaft  in  the 
basement,  fitted  with  a  door,  should  be  provided  to  gain  admit- 
tance to  the  gas  burners.  This  is  a  requirement  needed  only  when 
the  rooms  are  occupied  by  an  unusual  number  of  persons.  Fig. 


220     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


199  shows  a  method  of  connecting  the  foul-air  duct  with  the  ven- 
tilating shaft.  A  register  should  be  set  in  an  inside  wall  of  each 
living  room  at  a  point  just  above  the  baseboard  and  a  foul-air 
duct  run  as  shown  by  the  illustration. 

Rooms  having  open  fireplaces  are  easily  ventilated  in  warm 
weather  by  gas  jets  placed  within  the  opening  to  chimney.  The 
fresh-air  supply  for  a  residence  may  be  furnished  by  indirect  or 
semidirect  radiators  placed  as  we  have  shown  by  Figs.  96,  97, 
98  and  101.  When  no  special  provision  is  made  for  the  admis- 
sion of  pure  air  to  a  residence,  or  where  the  cost  of  indirect  heat- 
ing seems  to  make  its  use  prohibitive,  there  should  be  at  least 
one  fresh-air  inlet.  This  should  be  placed  in  the  lower  or  re- 
ception hall  and  as  great  a  volume  of  air  admitted  as  can  be 
tempered  by  an  indirect  radiator  placed  beneath  the  floor,  the 


-4 


\Stack 


'Ventilating 
Shaft 


Foul  Air  Outlet 
Register 


^  Foul  Air  Due 


t  between  Joists 


FIG.  199. — Connecting  foul-air  duct  to  ventilating  shaft. 

size  of  same  depending  upon  existing  conditions.  The  inlet  reg- 
isters for  all  ventilation  of  this  character  should  be  placed  in  the 
wall  at  a  point  about  two  thirds  the  height  of  the  ceiling  and  they 
should  be  located  at  a  point  opposite  to  the  fireplace,  if  there  be 
one  in  the  room.  See  Fig.  200. 

The  importance  of  chimneys  as  ventilating  shafts  is  not  gen- 
erally recognized.     The  open  fireplace,  when  in  use,  provides  a 


VENTILATION 


221 


most  successful  means  of  exhausting  the  foul  air  from  a  room. 
A  chimney  or  shaft  may  be  successfully  used  for  ventilation  by 
running  a  smoke  flue  constructed  of  boiler  iron  through  the  center 
of  the  shaft  and  surrounding  it  with  ventilating  ducts  of  such 
number  and  size  as  may  be  necessary  to  accommodate  the  rooms 
to  be  ventilated.  When  used  in  this  connection  a  chimney  should 


Fresh  Air  Inlet 
Register  3'  from  Ceiling 


J      FIG.  200. — Location  of  fresh-air  inlet. 


be  located  in  the  center  of  the  building  and  the  bottom  of  the 
smoke  flue  should  rest  on  a  cast-iron  plate  supported  on  a  brick 
or  stone  foundation,  as  shown  by  Fig.  201. 

The  arrangement  of  ventilating  ducts  is  shown  by  Fig.  202. 
These  ducts  rise  to  the  height  of  the  brickwork  of  the  chimney, 
on  the  top  of  which  there  should  be  erected  an  iron  canopy  open 
at  the  sides.  The  smoke  flue  should  protrude  through  the  top 
of  the  canopy  and  may  have  a  cowl  at  the  extreme  end,  if  desired. 
The  smoke  flue  should  be  anchored  to  the  brick  walls  by  iron 
clamps,  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  203.  These  anchor  clamps  should 
be  attached  at  the  line  of  each  floor,  at  the  roof  line  and  at  the 
top  of  the  brick  chimney.  The  smoke  flue  warms  and  expands 
the  air  in  the  ventilating  ducts,  inducing  an  upward  circulation, 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


which  exhausts  the  foul  air  from  each  room  and  discharges  it 
into  the  atmosphere  under  the  canopy  at  the  top  of  the  chimney. 
This  method  of  ventilation,  in  connection  with  indirect  or 
semidirect  radiators  for  warming,  is  quite  successful  and  by 
slight  modifications  may  be  readily  adapted  for  many  small  build- 


A.  A.       Brick  Chimney 

B.  B.  B,  Ventilating  Ducts 


FIG.  202. — Ventilating  ducts  m  shaft. 


Iron  Clamp 


FIG.  203. — Iron  clamps  for  support- 
FIG.  201. — Construction  of  ventilating  shaft.  ing  stack. 


ings.  For  residences  this  method  may  be  employed  in  place  of 
the  ventilating  shaft  as.  previously  mentioned. 

The  movement  of  air  in  the  vertical  or  main  vent  flues  should 
not  be  less  than  6  feet  per  second.  With  an  arrangement  of  the 
flues  as  described  above,  if  properly  constructed,  this  velocity, 
or  even  a  greater,  should  be  easily  obtained. 

Make  the  register  openings  of  such  sizes  that  the  velocity 
of  the  air  through  them  will  not  be  more  than  one  half  that  in 
the  vertical  duct,  or  in  other  words,  not  more  than  3  feet  per 


VENTILATION 

second.  If  this  schedule  is  adhered  to,  no  perceptible  draughts 
will  abound  or  be  felt  by  the  occupants  of  a  room. 

When  semidirect  radiators  are  used  for  warming  the  enter- 
ing air,  the  dampers  may  be  adjusted  to  suit  the  state  of  the 
weather.  With  indirect  radiation  the  registers  should  equal  in 
size  and  open  area  those  used  for  foul  air. 

Definite  results  as  to  air  volume  and  velocity  may  be  obtained 
by  properly  proportioning  the  amount  of  heating  surface  and 
the  sizes  of  hot  and  cold  air  ducts.  This  is  particularly  true  in 
cold  weather  when  the  maximum  amount  of  pure  air  would  be 
supplied  to  the  building. 

There  seems  to  be  no  question  but  that  the  combination  of 
gravity  ventilation  and  indirect  heating  is  one  that  gives  vary- 
ing quantities  of  air  dependent  on  atmospheric  conditions.  In 
warmer  weather,  when  the  minimum  amount  of  heat  is  necessary, 
the  resulting  temperatures  and  velocities  of  the  air  in  the  ven- 
tilating flues  are  less  than  in  colder  weather;  consequently  the 
volume  of  fresh  air  admitted  and  the  volume  of  air  exhausted 
are  less. 

With  this  understanding  we  should  not  use  the  average  vol- 
ume necessary  as  a  basis  for  estimating,  but  should  so  plan  the 
work  that  the  volume  of  air  moved  in  warmer  weather  would 
be  adequate  for  the  character  of  the  building  in  which  the  appa- 
ratus is  placed. 


CHAPTER    XXI 

MECHANICAL  VENTILATION  AND  HOT-BLAST  HEATING 

Growth  and  Improvement 

THE  phenomenal  growth  of  the  various  systems  of  hot-blast 
heating  and  mechanical  ventilation  during  the  past  twenty-five 
years  is  due  largely  to  the  better  understanding  of  those  who 
plan  and  erect  buildings  as  to  the  need  of  a  positive  system  of 
heating  and  ventilation.  Many  excellent  works  have  been  pub- 
lished covering  the  advantages  of  this  type  of  apparatus  and  the 
application  of  the  various  methods  employed  in  performing  the 
work.  These  books  and  papers  are  more  or  less  necessarily  tech- 
nical in  character  and,  therefore,  useful  principally  to  experienced 
engineers  and  are  intelligible  only  to  those  who  have  received  the 
benefit  of  a  higher  education. 

While  we  may  not  be  able  to  add  to  the  value  of  what  has 
already  been  written  on  the  subject,  we  hope  to  so  describe  and 
illustrate  the  various  methods  employed  that  the  average  steam 
fitter  or  heating  contractor  will  obtain  an  intelligent  idea  of  the 
principles  applied  and  the  methods  practiced  in  installing  work 
of  this  character. 

Our  thanks  are  due  to  such  representative  manufacturers  of 
fans  and  ventilating  apparatus  as  The  Buffalo  Forge  Company, 
The  B.  F.  Sturtevant  Company,  American  Blower  Company, 
New  York  Blower  Company  and  The  Massachusetts  Fan  Com- 
pany and  the  engineers  employed  by  them  for  much  valuable 
assistance  and  for  permission  granted  to  use  such  tables  relating 
to  the  movement  of  air,  etc.,  etc.,  as  appear  in  the  last  chapter  of 
this  book. 

Experience  has  clearly  demonstrated  that  mechanical  heating 
and  ventilation  should  go  hand  in  hand,  and  in  order  that  the 
cost  of  installation  and  operation  may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum, 

224 


MECHANICAL    VENTILATION  225 

they  should  be  considered  unitedly,  planned  for  unitedly  and  in- 
stalled unitedly.  A  system  of  heating  and  ventilating  cannot  be 
perfectly  controlled  where  one  part  is  installed  independent  of 
the  other  and  without  perfect  control  the  cost  of  operation  must 
be  excessive  and  the  results  obtained  be  intermittent,  if  not  a 
complete  failure. 

Mechanical  systems  for  heating  and  ventilating  are  at  this 
date  installed  principally  in  buildings  of  large  size,  such  as 
schools,  theaters,  churches,  hospitals,  factories,  etc.,  and  in  com- 
paratively few  residences.  This  latter  condition  is  due  undoubt- 
edly to  the  cost,  both  of  apparatus  and  of  maintenance.  When 
as  a  people  we  shall  have  decided  that  we  are  willing  to  pay  as 
much  for  health  and  comfort  (which  result  from  the  breathing 
of  pure,  fresh  air)  as  we  do  for  the  heating  of  our  homes,  then, 
without  question,  we  shall  see  mechanical  methods  of  heating  and 
ventilating  more  generally  practiced.  Another  influence  oper- 
ating against  the  adoption  of  methods  of  mechanical  heating  and 
ventilation,  which  possibly  has  not  been  heretofore  fully  recog- 
nized, has  been  the  antagonism  of  the  steam-fitting  trade  in  many 
localities  to  the  approval  and  acceptance  of  the  blower  system. 
In  all  likelihood  this  situation  is  due  to  two  reasons,  namely  (1) 
ignorance  of  the  modes  applied  and  the  results  obtained,  and  (2) 
the  question  of  personal  gain  arising  from  the  adoption  of  some 
one  of  the  old  orthodox  systems  of  heating. 


Methods  Employed 

There  are  two  general  methods  practiced  in  supplying  a 
building  with  heat  and  fresh  air  and  in  exhausting  or  expelling 
the  foul  air.  These  methods  are  known  as  the  exhaust  and  ple- 
num methods.  In  arranging  the  apparatus  for  an  exhaust  sys- 
tem, the  fan  is  placed  in  the  main  ventilating  shaft  or  duct  and 
cold  or  fresh  air  ducts  lead  to  the  heating  surfaces  supplying  each 
room,  as  would  be  the  case  if  indirect  radiators  were  used.  The 
entire  heating  surface  may  also  be  placed  within  a  single  chamber 
(brick  or  iron)  and  from  this  chamber  the  warm-air  supply  pipes 
connect  with  ducts  leading  to  each  room.  Again,  the  heating 
surface  may  be  direct,  that  is  to  say,  direct  cast-iron  radiators 


226     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

or  pipe  coils  placed  under  windows  or  at  points  where  the  inward 
leakage  is  the  greatest. 

In  action  the  fan  produces  a  partial  vacuum  within  the  room. 
This  results  in  drawing  the  fresh  air  from  outside  the  building 
through  the  coils  or  other  heating  surfaces  and  from  them  into 
the  various  rooms.  At  the  same  time  it  exhausts  the  foul  air 
through  ducts  provided  for  the  purpose,  which  are  connected 
with  the  main  ventilating  shaft.  In  so  far  as  the  heating  and 
ventilating  results  are  concerned,  it  is  possible  to  thoroughly 
warm  and  ventilate  a  building  by  this  method  and  there  are  a 
great  many  structures  heated  in  this  manner.  The  objections 
to  this  mode  are  that  in  operation  the  partial  vacuum  created 
draws  all  air  currents  inwardly  through  the  crevices  around 
doors  or  windows,  thus  often  producing  a  draught  which  is  dan- 
gerous to  the  occupants  of  the  rooms;  also,  that  it  is  difficult 
to  control  a  system  of  this  character,  particularly  in  a  change- 
able climate.  Again,  the  locations  of  the  inlet  and  outlet  regis- 
ters must  be  arranged  with  great  care,  owing  to  the  direct  course 
of  the  air  from  the  inlets  to  the  outlets,  and  often  the  conditions 
of  the  building  (particularly  if  previously  erected)  are  such  that 
the  ducts  and  openings  cannot  be  distributed  as  desired.  For 
these  reasons  this  system  is  not  now  generally  used;  it  has  been 
replaced  by  the  so-called  "  plenum  "  method. 

With  the  plenum  method  the  heated  air  is  forced  into  each 
room  under  a  slight  pressure  and  all  leaks  of  air  around  doors, 
windows  or  other  openings  are  outward  and  no  perceptible 
draughts  are  felt  or  experienced  by  the  occupants  of  the  room. 
As  the  slight  pressure  exerted  is  from  the  source  of  the  pure- 
air  supply  it  is  impossible  for  any  obnoxious  odors  or  gases  to 
enter  into  and  contaminate  the  air  of  the  room.  With  this  sys- 
tem the  supply  of  heated  air,  as  well  as  the  supply  of  fresh  air, 
or  we  might  say  the  quality,  quantity  and  temperature  of  the 
air  are  always  under  perfect  control. 

There  are  several  adaptations  of  the  plenum  system  of  heat- 
ing and  ventilating.  The  older  method  employed  is  where  the 
cold  air  is  supplied  to  the  fan  direct  from  a  cold-air  chamber  or 
cold-air  duct,  the  fan  driving  it  through  the  heater  or  heating 
coils  into  the  various  warm  air  ducts  supplying  the  rooms  of  the 


MECHANICAL    VENTILATION  227 

building.  The  air  may  be  sufficiently  heated  by  these  coils,  or 
it  may  be  driven  through  supplementary  heaters  located  at  the 
base  of  the  hot-air  flues  and  be  increasingly  heated  before  de- 
livery to  the  room  or  rooms  to  be  warmed.  Separate  ducts  may 
be  arranged  to  connect  the  main  hot-air  supply  with  the  rising 
flues,  or  the  heated  air  from  the  coil  may  be  discharged  under 
a  slight  pressure  into  a  plenum  chamber  with  which  all  supply 
pipes  or  warm-air  ducts  are  connected. 

Heat  Losses  and  Heating  Capacity  Required 

The  proportion  of  heat  losses  depends  principally  upon  the 
construction  of  the  building,  whether  of  frame,  stone  or  brick, 
the  conditions  of  exposure,  that  is  to  say,  whether  standing  alone 
in  an  isolated  position  or  protected  from  chilling  winds  by  sur- 
rounding buildings,  the  number  and  sizes  of  windows  and  the 
amount  of  exposed  wall  surface.  Brick  buildings  lose  less  heat 
through  walls  than  buildings  constructed  of  wood  or  stone  and 
of  the  three  classes,  the  frame  structure  is  usually  less  compactly 
erected  and  correspondingly  harder  to  heat.  The  percentage  of 
loss  through  walls  of  varying  thicknesses  has  been  ascertained 
with  sufficient  accuracy  for  estimating  purposes,  as  has  also  been 
the  percentage  of  heat  transmission  through  windows  (glass), 
doors,  floors  and  ceilings. 

The  use  to  which  the  building  is  put  largely  governs  the 
heating  capacity  required.  A  schoolhouse  or  similar  structure, 
built  in  the  open  and  having  a  large  proportion  of  exposed  glass 
and  wall  surface,  and  where  a  certain  number  of  changes  of  air 
per  hour  is  desired,  or  a  definite  amount  of  fresh  air  per  hour 
per  person  required,  is  proportionately  harder  to  warm  than 
would  be  a  theater  with  its  small  glass  exposure  and  usually 
well  protected  walls,  to  say  nothing  of  the  animal  heat  emanating 
from  a  large  number  of  people  closely  assembled.  In  the  latter 
type  of  building  the  matter  of  furnishing  fresh  air  to  replace 
that  vitiated  by  the  breaths  of  the  individuals  within  the  struc- 
ture, and  exhausting  the  air  so  contaminated  without  producing 
draughts  or  dangerous  air  currents,  is  a  problem  not  easily  solved. 
Assembly  halls,  churches,  hospitals,  factories  and  other  types  of 
buildings  present  conditions  of  heat  losses  and  air  vitiation  which 


228     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

vary  according  to  the  diversified  uses  to  which  each  building  is 
put ;  therefore  each  type  of  building  must  be  considered  separately 
in  planning  the  heating  and  ventilating  of  it. 

The  heating  capacity  of  the  apparatus  is  therefore  based  on 
two  conditions,  namely,  the  temperature  of  the  air  necessary  to 
warm  the  building  and  the  volume  of  fresh  air  necessary  to  be 
supplied  in  order  to  maintain  a  given  standard  of  purity  of  the 
atmosphere  within  the  building.  Reference  to  the  table  "  Volume 
of  Air  Necessary  to  Maintain  a  Standard  of  Purity  "  given  in 
the  last  chapter  of  this  book  will  show  the  volume  of  air  essential 
under  certain  stated  conditions. 

Quality  of  the  Air  Supplied 

When  a  blower  apparatus  is  placed  in  a  building  erected  in  a 
location  where  the  purity  of  the  air  is  unquestioned,  it  may  be 
supplied  in  its  natural  state  to  the  building.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  large  proportion  of  buildings  heated  and  ventilated  by 
mechanical  methods  are  located  in  the  cities,  in  congested  dis- 
tricts, or  in  factory  towns  where  the  atmosphere  surrounding  the 
structure  is  contaminated  by  dust  and  soot  and  which,  aside  from 
the  possibility  of  being  more  or  less  filled  with  the  germs  of  dis- 
ease, is  unfit  to  breathe.  Again,  in  all  buildings  heated  by  arti- 
ficial means,  the  air  is  deficient  in  moisture,  the  dryness  being  so 
apparent  that  it  is  necessary  to  heat  the  rooms  to  a  temperature 
much  higher  than  would  be  required  were  proper  attention  given 
to  the  quality  of  the  air  supplied. 

Proper  provision  for  a  desirable  degree  of  moisture  in  the 
air  supplied  to  a  building  is  as  necessary,  indeed  we  may  say, 
more  necessary,  for  health  of  its  occupants,  than  the  heating  of 
it.  Proper  protection  in  the  way  of  clothing  will  prevent  chill- 
ing in  a  structure  insufficiently  warmed,  but  there  is  no  individual 
resource  whereby  a  person  may  prevent  the  oppressive  feeling 
resulting  from  the  dryness  or  overheating  of  a  room,  causing  the 
evaporation  of  the  moisture  from  the  body  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  produce  irritation  of  the  skin  and  other  unpleasant  sensations. 
One  can  never  feel  as  comfortable  inside  a  room  heated  to  70° 
as  in  the  open  and  balmy  outside  air  when  the  temperature  is 
at  70°.  This  fact  alone  shows  conclusively  that  the  nearer  we 


MECHANICAL    VENTILATION 


229 


can  come  to  maintaining  a  fixed  standard  of  humidity  within  a 
building,  the  richer  will  be  the  conditions  of  health  and  comfort. 
With  these  circumstances  provided  for  it  is  possible  at  times 
to  breathe  better  air  within  than  without  an  edifice,  because 
the  weight  of  moisture  in  the  outside  air  is  variable,  as  it  de- 
pends upon  the  conditions  of  humidity  and  temperature  and  these 
change  daily,  often  hourly.  Prof.  Kinealy  states  that  the  weight 
of  moisture  brought  into  a  room  per  hour  by  air  which  enters 
from  the  outside,  is  equal  to  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  air, 
measured  at  the  outside  temperature,  which  enters  per  hour,  mul- 
tiplied by  the  weight  in  grains  of  the  moisture  in  one  cubic  foot 
of  air,  and  that  the  amount  of  moisture  in  one  cubic  foot  of 
external  air  is  obtained  by  multiplying  its  humidity  by  the  weight 
of  moisture  required  to  saturate  it  at  the  outside  temperature. 

Again,  the  same  authority  states  that  as  it  is  customary  in 
this  country  to  keep  the  air  of  the  rooms  at  70°,  and  to  assume 
that  the  volume  of  the  air  supplied  for  ventilation  is  measured 
at  70°,  the  following  table  has  been  calculated  to  show  the  weight 
of  moisture  in  one  cubic  foot  of  air  at  70°,  when  the  air  is  taken 
in  a  saturated  condition  at  different  outside  temperatures  and 
heated  to  70°. 

TABLE  XX\7 


Temperature  of  Saturated 

Weight  of  Vapor  in  One 
Cubic  Foot  of  Air  when           Humidity  of  Air  when  Heated 

Outside  Air. 

Temperature  is  Raised  to 

to  70  Degrees. 

70  Degrees. 

0 

0  68 

8.5 

10 

0.98 

12.3 

20 

1.43 

17.9 

30 

2.04 

25.5 

40 

2.92 

36.5 

50 

4.13 

51.6 

60 

5.76 

72.0 

An  Ideal  System 

The  ideal  system  of  mechanical  heating  and  ventilation  must, 
therefore,  be  the  system  which  will  not  only  properly  warm  a 
building,  but  which  will  at  the  same  time  expel  the  foul  air  in 
such  quantities  as  to  thoroughly  remove  all  excess  carbonic-acid 


230     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

gas  and  all  poisons  of  respiration  from  the  atmosphere  within 
the  building  and  replace  the  air  expelled  with  air  which  has  been 
washed  of  its  soot,  dirt  and  germs  and  moistened  to  such  a  degree 
as  will  insure  healthfulness  and  comfort  to  the  occupants.  Fur- 
ther, the  ideal  system  is  one  which  is  always  under  perfect  con- 
trol, giving  certain  definite  results  within  a  minimum  cost  of 
maintenance.  Our  readers  may  ask  if  all  this  is  possible,  to  which 
we  reply :  Yes,  not  only  possible,  but  further,  that  systems  of 
this  character  are  now  in  constant  use.  Installations  of  this  kind 
are  known  as  the  "  double-duct  system  "  or  more  familiarly  as 
the  "  hot  and  cold  system."  The  reason  for  these  appellations 
is  shown  in  the  following  descriptions  of  apparatus. 

Taking  the  modern  school  or  public  building  for  illustration, 
Fig.  204  shows  a  system  of  this  kind  as  designed  by  the  Buffalo 
Forge  Company.  The  fan,  heaters  and  air  ducts  are  arranged 
in  the  usual  manner.  The  tempering  coils  are  located  nearest 
to  the  fresh-air  inlet  and  are  of  sufficient  capacity  to  maintain 
any  temperature  desired  up  to  70°  or  80°.  The  coils  are  spe- 
cially constructed  to  admit  of  temperature  regulation  by  hand, 
or  the  temperature  in  the  spray  or  humidifying  chamber  may  be 
automatically  controlled  by  means  of  a  by-pass  damper  under 
tempering  coils.  At  one  end  of  the  spray  chamber  are  located 
the  spray  nozzles.  These  are  made  of  brass  and  are  of  simple 
construction,  practically  atomizing  the  water  and  distributing 
it  uniformly  throughout  the  chamber,  the  discharge  being  par- 
allel to  the  air  currents.  At  the  opposite  end  of  the  chamber  is 
located  the  eliminator  or  separator,  which  removes  all  free  par- 
ticles of  moisture  from  the  air  before  it  enters  the  fan  which 
draws  the  air  direct  from  the  humidifying  chamber  through  the 
eliminator.  The  air  thus  cleansed  and  moistened  is  then  dis- 
charged through  the  coils  of  the  heater  into  the  plenum  chamber 
from  which  the  various  ducts  supplying  the  building  are  taken. 

Reference  to  Fig.  205  (which  is  an  elevation  plan  of  an  appa- 
ratus designed  for  the  Carnegie  Library  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.)  will 
show  that  the  entire  volume  of  air  from  the  fan  may  be  delivered 
through  the  heater,  or  a  portion  of  it  may  be  passed  around  the 
heater  through  the  by-pass  shown  and  mixed  with  the  hot  air 
in  such  quantities  as  desired  or  necessary  to  maintain  a  given 


MECHANICAL    VENTILATION 


231 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


MECHANICAL    VENTILATION 

temperature  within  the  building.  Thermostatic  control  at  the 
mixing  dampers  for  each  room  is  an  essential  and  special  feature 
for  a  system  of  this  character. 

It  may  be  well  to  state  that  the  water  for  the  sprays  may 
be  furnished  from  city  pressure.  The  most  economical  method, 
however,  is  to  use  the  water  continuously  until  it  is  unfit  for 
further  use.  This  is  achieved  by  draining  the  water  separated 
from  the  air  by  the  eliminator  into  a  well,  from  which  it  is 


pIG    206.— Wire  screen  for  cleansing  air. 


pumped  by  a  centrifugal  pump  and  delivered  again  to  the  spray 
system.  This  pump  may  be  direct  connected  or  driven  by  belt 
from  the  fan,  or  a  separate  motor. 

Air  cleansing  and  humidifying  may  be  secured  by  several 
methods.  For  cleaning  it  of  soot  and' dust,  the  air  may  be  passed 
through  a  fine  wire  screen  similar  to  that  shown  by  Fig.  206. 
Originally  cheese  cloth  stretched  over  wooden  frames  was  used. 
These  frames  were  made  removable,  to  be  replaced  when  clogged 
with  dirt. 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

Coke  washing  and  purifying  seems  to  be  a  very  good  method 
of  removing  dust  and  dirt  and  at  the  same  time  moistening  the 
air.  The  coke  is  placed  on  shelving  within  a  wire  cage,  through 


_ 


which  the  air  is  passed  on  its  way  to  the  fan.  At  the  top  of  the 
cage  the  water  supply  is  placed.  The  water  is  allowed  to  trickle 
down  over  and  through  the  coke,  while  the  air  passing  through 


MECHANICAL    VENTILATION 


235 


236     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

at  right  angles  is  purified  and  moistened.  Fig.  207  shows  a  per- 
spective section  of  a  school  with  heater,  fan,  coke  washer,  etc.,  as 
installed  by  the  American  Blower  Company.  The  fresh  air  enters 


the  building  in  the  usual  manner,  through  a  screened  opening  in 
basement  wall,  passes  through  tempering  coils,  or  direct  through 
by-pass  under  the  coils,  to  the  coke  washer  and  from  here  to  the 
fan. 


MECHANICAL    VENTILATION  237 

It  is  delivered  to  the  heater  or  passed  around  it  in  the  usual 
manner  and  under  thermostatic  control  is  admitted  to  the  vari- 
ous rooms  through  ducts  leading  out  of  the  plenum  chamber. 

Quite  similar  is  the  apparatus  of  the  New  York  Blower  Com- 
pany, as  illustrated  by  Fig.  208. 

As  conditions  of  area,  location,  etc.,  largely  govern  the  char- 
acter of  the  apparatus  installed,  each  particular  building  must 
be  separately  considered  and  this  fact  is  responsible  in  no  small 
degree  for  the  many  arrangements  and  designs  of  the  blower 
system. 

One  of  the  many  Sturtevant  methods  is  shown  by  illustration 
Fig.  209.  It  is  a  three-quarter  housing  pulley  fan  with  blow- 
through  heater  for  the  "  hot-and-cold  "  or  "  double-duct  "  sys- 
tem. An  apparatus  of  this  kind  is  used  on  work  where  space  is 
limited,  or  where  the  space  allotted  is  in  such  form  as  to  preclude 
the  placing  of  apparatus  of  the  ordinary  form  with  moistening 
chamber  and  tempering  coils.  The  outlet  from  the  heater  may  be 
made  to  discharge  directly  outward  from  the  end,  or  upward  or 
downward  in  either  direction.  In  fact,  the  methods  of  setting 
and  housing  of  the  fan,  whether  a  steam  fan  or  operated  by  a 
pulley,  are  such  as  may  be  adapted  for  any  special  form  of 
installation. 

A  typical  apparatus  for  heating  and  ventilating  a  school  is 
shown  by  the  small  basement  plan  Fig.  210.  In  this  case  the 
fan  discharges  in  opposite  directions  through  separate  heaters 
to  the  right  and  to  the  left  into  separate  plenum  chambers,  as 
shown.  This  arrangement  of  the  apparatus  is  particularly  com- 
mendable owing  to  the  centralizing  of  the  fan  and  heaters  and 
the  direct  delivery  of  the  warm  air.  One  engineer  summarizes 
the  features  of  this  system  as  follows: 

"  The  entire  heating  surface  is  centrally  located,  inclosed 
within  a  fireproof  casing,  and  placed  under  the  control  of  a  single 
individual,  thereby  avoiding  the  possibility  of  damage  by  leakage 
or  freezing  incident  to  a  scattered  system  of  steam  piping  and 
radiators.  The  heater  itself  is  adapted  for  the  use  of  either 
exhaust  or  live  steam,  and  provision  is  made  for  utilizing  the 
exhaust  of  the  fan  engine,  thereby  reducing  the  cost  of  operation 
(of  the  fan)  to  practically  nothing.  At  all  times  ample  and 


238     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

positive  ventilation  may  be  provided  with  air  tempered  to  the 
desired  degree.  Absolute  control  may  be  had  over  the  quality 
and  quantity  of  air  supplied.  It  may  be  -filtered,  cleansed,  heated 


"BASEMENT      f>URN. 

FIG.  210.— A  typical  method  for  schools. 

or  cooled,  dried  or  moistened  at  will.  By  means  of  the  hot  and 
cold  system,  the  temperature  of  the  air  admitted  to  any  given 
apartment  may  be  instantly  and  radically  changed  without  the 
employment  of  supplementary  heating  surface." 

Fans  for  Blowing  and  Exhausting 

For  exhaust  ventilation  and  the  removal  of  smoke,  obnoxious 
gases,  etc.,  from  factories  or  other  buildings,  the  regular  forms 
of  fan  wheels  used  are  of  the  disc  or  the  cone  type.  Fans  of 
this  character  are  lightly  constructed,  are  easily  installed  and 
require  but  little  power  to  operate  when  run  at  low  speed. 

The  Cone  type  of  peripheral  discharge,  without  any  casing 


MECHANICAL    VENTILATION  239 

whatever,  is  thought  to  give  the  highest  efficiency.  They  are  said 
to  produce  better  results  in  volume  of  air  moved  than  could  be 
secured  by  the  use  of  the  ordinary  type  of  disc  fan  with  straight 
blades. 

The  fan  may  be  driven  by  a  direct-connected  motor,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  211,  or  may  be  pulley  driven,  as  shown  by  Fig.  212. 
These  illustrations  also  show  the  manner  of  setting  or  installa- 
tion. This  type  of  fan  is  frequently  used  in  the  main  vent  shaft 
of  a  church,  school  or  similar  building  in  place  of  an  aspirating 
coil  where  "  assisted  ventilation  "  is  necessary. 

The  centrifugal  fan  wheel  illustrated  by  Fig.  213  is  the  type 
of  steel-plate  fan  as  used  in  all  blowers  whether  the  housings  are 
made  of  steel,  brick  or  wood.  There  are  several  adaptations  of 
this  type  of  steel-plate  fan,  which  space  will  not  allow  us  to 
illustrate  or  describe.  The  blades  may  be  curved  or  they  may  be 
bent  backward  to  avoid  noise.  Various  manufacturers  have  vary- 
ing ideas  of  efficiency  and  forms  of  construction.  The  fans  illus- 
trated may  be  considered  as  representative  of  the  several  types. 

The  propeller  or  disc  fan,  as  the  name  implies,  propels  the 
air  forward  by  impact  and  centrifugal  force  and  is  efficient  for 
moving  large  bodies  of  air  under  slight  resistance.  For  driving 
air  through  heaters  and  long  pipes  or  ducts,  or  delivering  a  fixed 
volume  of  air  in  a  stated  period  or  under  great  resistance,  the 
type  of  fan  wheel  illustrated  by  Fig.  213  is  now  almost  universally 
employed. 

Types  of  Heaters 

There  are  several  types  of  heaters  as  used  for  mechanical  or 
hot-blast  heating  and  ventilation.  The  form  of  the  heater  em- 
ployed depends  largely  upon  the  character  of  work  to  be  per- 
formed and  the  space  to  be  occupied  for  its  installation.  Different 
requirements  demand  different  heaters  and  it  would  be  hard  to 
select  one  make  or  type  of  a  heater  which  could  always  be  adopted. 
Again,  the  size  and  shape  of  the  heater  depend  upon  the  extent  or 
number  of  degrees  the  air  is  to  be  heated,  the  volume  of  air  passed 
by  the  fan  and  the  steam  pressure  available.  As  a  rule,  the  heater 
installed  for  this  class  of  work  takes  the  form  of  what  might  be 
designated  as  a  "  set  "  or  "  group  "  of  steam  coils  made  from 


240     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


FIG.  211.— Ventilating  fan  with  direct- 
connected  motor. 


FIG.  213.— Type  of  steel  plate 
fan. 


FIG.  212.— Pulley-driven  ventilating  fan. 


MECHANICAL    VENTILATION 

wrought-iron  pipe,  usually  1"  in  diameter  and  screwed  into  cast- 
iron  bases  of  various  forms,  composing  sections,  the  sections  being 
then  assembled  in  groups  of  two  or  more,  according  to  the  needs 
of  the  work. 

The  Sturtevant  mitre  type  of  heater  is  illustrated  by  Fig. 
214.  Steam  is  admitted  at  the  top  of  the  inlet  header  or  section 
and  the  condensation  removed  at  the  end  of  the  outlet  section, 
each  of  the  sections  having  an  independent  feed  and  drip. 

The  regular  Sturtevant  type  of  heater  and  the  construction 
of  the  base  are  shown  by  Fig.  215.  In  this  type  of  heater  (made 


FIG.  214. — Sturtevant  mitre  type  of  heater. 

also  of  V  pipe)  the  pipes  are  set  21/:}"  on  centers,  providing  a 
free  area  for  passage  of  air  equal  to  about  40^  of  the  full  area 
of  the  face  of  the  section.  The  arrangement  of  the  interior  of 
the  cast-iron  base  and  the  division  partition  or  diaphragm  are 
clearly  shown  by  the  illustration.  The  steam  enters  the  upper 
part  of  the  base  and  feeds  one  end  of  the  various  pipe  loops,  pass- 
ing upward  and  across  the  top  and  down  the  opposite  side  of  the 
loop,  the  condensation  entering  the  lower  division  of  each  header, 
from  which  it  passes  to  the  return  drip. 

The  headers  or  bases  are  made  to  accommodate  either  two  or 
four  rows  of  pipe,  and  the  compactness  of  the  heating  surface  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  within  a  space  of  6  feet  in  length,  7  feet  in 


242     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

height,  and  7%  inches  deep,  nearly  1,000  lineal  feet  of  pipe  may 
be  massed. 

The  Buffalo  Manifold  Heater  is  illustrated  by  Figs.  216  and 


FIG.  215. — Sturtevant  heater  and  base. 

217,  and  the  Mitre  Coil  Heater  by  Figs.  218  and  219.  The  Buf- 
falo Manifold  Heater  is  particularly  efficient  due  to  the  peculiar 
form  of  the  heater  base. 


FIG.  216. — Buffalo  heater  showing  FIG.  217. — Buffalo  heater  showing 

connections.  base. 

The  heaters  of  the  American  Blower  Company  and  of  the  New 
York  Blower  Company  take  the  usual  form  in  construction,  but 


MECHANICAL    VENTILATION 


243 


differ  in  the  arrangement  of  the  heater  bases.  The  A.  B.  C.  heater 
base  is  divided  lengthwise  by  a  diaphragm,  the  flow  entering  from 
one  side  of  the  partition,  the  return  passing  through  the  chamber 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  partition.  The  form  of  the  New  York 
heater  base  is  shown  by  illustration  Fig.  220,  which  also  shows 
this  particular  heater  with  a  part  of  the  casing  removed.  Fig.  221 
shows  the  A.  B.  C.  Heater  complete  ready  for  the  casing. 

The  regular  form  of  cast-iron  indirect  sections  may  be  used  in 
connection  with  the  blower  system  for  heating  and  ventilating 
schools,  churches  or  buildings  where  it  is  not  necessary  to  heat  the 


FIG.  218.— Buffalo  mitre  type 
of  heater. 


FIG.  219. — Assembling  of  mitre 
type  of  heater. 


air  to  a  very  high  temperature.  A  hot-air  chamber  is  provided 
in  the  basement  and  the  indirect  sections  assembled  into  stacks  and 
arranged  in  two,  three,  four  or  more  tiers,  as  occasion  demands. 
Each  tier  is  supported  on  I  beams  or  railroad  rails.  There  are 
also  special  forms  of  cast-iron  sections  available  for  use  with  a 
blower  apparatus. 

The  fact  of  so  large  a  heating  surface  being  contained  within 
a  comparatively  small  space,  as  with  any  one  of  the  heaters  men- 
tioned and  illustrated,  and  the  further  truth  that  but  one  fifth  of 
the  surface  ordinarily  required  for  direct  heating  is  necessary  for 
the  hot-blast  system,  are  points  of  economy  worthy  of  serious  con- 
sideration. To  these  advantages  we  may  add  efficiency  of  service, 


PRACTICAL    HEATING   AND    VENTILATION 


as  it  is  conceded  that,  owing  to  the  rapid  movement  of  the  air  over 
the  heating  surfaces,  they  become  three  times  more  efficient  than 
heating  surfaces  in  comparatively  still  air,  as  in  the  case  of  direct 
radiation. 


FIG.  220. — New  York  heater  showing  construction  of  base. 

One  point  in  heater  construction  we  wish  to  make  plain.  The 
heater  may  be  so  valved  and  connected  that  certain  sections  may 
be  used  for  live  steam,  certain  sections  for  exhaust  steam  from  an 
engine-driven  fan  or  other  source,  or  all  of  the  sections  may  be 
used  for  live  or  exhaust  steam  as  the  case  may  demand. 

Methods  of  Driving  Fans 

The  method  of  driving  fans  for  ventilating  or  for  a  combined 
system  of  heating  and  ventilation  includes  a  detail  of  construction 


MECHANICAL    VENTILATION 


245 


unnecessary  to  discuss  at  length.  In  so  far  as  efficiency  is  con- 
cerned, fans  of  all  types  may  be  driven  by  electricity  (a  direct 
connected  or  independent  motor)  or  by  steam. 

It  frequently  happens  that  fans  are  installed  in  positions  where 
electric  power  is  available  and  where  it  would  be  inconvenient  to 
use  an  engine.  In  such  a  situation  an  electric-driven  fan  with 
motor  directly  attached  is  without  doubt  the  most  suitable  and 
economical.  Again,  when  a  fan  is  used  to  accelerate  the  movement 
of  air  in  a  ventilating  shaft  or  duct,  it  is  easy  to  install  an  electric- 


FIG.  221. — A.  B.  C.  heater  ready  for  casing. 

driven  fan,  which  may  be  started,  stopped  and  controlled  from 
a  switch  located  in  a  convenient  position  for  the  attendant's  use. 
The  motor  used  should  be  independent,  that  is,  should  be  used  for 
no  other  purpose  than  that  of  driving  the  fan.  An  engine-driven 
fan  in  an  instance  of  this  kind  would  not  be  desirable.  For  an 
apparatus  used  for  heating  and  ventilating,  such  as  described  in 
the  preceding  pages  of  this  book,  an  engine-driven  fan  is  no  doubt 
the  best  and  most  economical. 

The  heater  connections  are  so  arranged  that  the  exhaust  from 


246     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

the  engine  driving  the  fan  may  be  employed  for  heating  purposes 
and  as  this  exhaust  has  probably  95$  of  its  original  value  in  heat 
units,  the  cost  of  driving  the  fan  is  reduced  to  practically  nothing. 
The  requirements  for  an  engine  of  this  kind  are  lightness  of  weight 
and  freedom  from  noise  and  vibration  when  run  at  high  speed. 


FIG.  222.— Type  of  A.  B.  C.  vertical 
engine. 


FIG.  223.— Showing  A.  B.  C.  self- 
lubricating  device. 


Simplicity  and  reliability  are  at  all  times  essential.  Fig.  222  shows 
one  of  the  many  types  of  the  A.  B.  C.  engine.  It  is  for  low  pres- 
sure and  of  the  vertical  type,  inclosed  to  keep  the  parts  free  from 
dust  and  dirt,  and  self-oiling  or  automatic.  An  interior  view 
showing  the  mechanism  of  the  self-lubricating  system  is  shown 


MECHANICAL    VENTILATION  247 


FIG.  224. — The  Sturtevant  horizontal  engine. 


FIG.  225. — The  Sturtevant  double  upright  engine. 


248     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


by  Fig.  223.  When  used  in  connection  with  a  heating  and  ven- 
tilating apparatus,  such  as  would  be  required  for  a  school  or  simi- 
lar building,  it  is  desirable  that  a  pressure  of  not  more  than  30  Ibs. 
be  carried ;  therefore  the  engine  must  be  supplied  with  large  cylin- 
ders in  order  that  the  required  power  may  be  produced. 

Fig.  224  shows  a  horizontal  engine  of  this  kind.  When  located 
where  there  is  more  or  less  dust  in  the  atmosphere  an  engine  of  the 
vertical,  inclosed  type  is  more  desirable.  The  double-upright  or 
vertical  inclosed  engine  illustrated  by  Fig.  225  represents  another 
type  of  engine  specially  designed  for  this  class  of  work. 

Some  Details  of  Construction 

The  following  details  of  Sturtevant  methods  are  typical  of 
those  in  use  on  blower  system  construction. 

The  planning  of  a  mechanical  system  of  heating  and  ventila- 
tion, the  determining  of  the  size  of  each  portion  of  the  apparatus 


FIG.  226. — Form  of  elbow  for  hot-air 
duct. 


FIG.  227. — Manner  of  reduc- 
ing size  of  air  duct. 


and  the  ordinary  details  of  construction  should  be  left  with  an  en- 
gineer whose  experience  at  work  of  this  character  qualifies  him  to 
handle  it  accurately  and  competently.  There  are  some  few  de- 
tails of  construction  with  which  we  should  become  thoroughly 
familiar. 

From   illustrations  and   descriptions    given  on   the  preceding 


MECHANICAL    VENTILATION  249 

pages  we  should  have  a  good  understanding  of  the  methods  of 
placing  the  mechanical  portion  of  the  apparatus,  arrangement  of 
air  chambers,  moistening  apparatus  and  eliminators. 

The  flues,  which  should  be  built  in  the  walls  as  the  construction 
of  the  building  progresses,  should,  if  possible,  be  tile-lined.  If 
not  tile-lined,  they  should  be  plastered  smooth.  The  ducts  (the 
name  given  to  all  horizontal  air  passages)  are  usually  made  of 
galvanized  iron,  although  in  many  instances  it  is  necessary  to  run 
a  portion  of  them  underground,  in  which  cases  they  should  be 
constructed  of  brick  or  tiling.  Sudden  turns  or  angles  in  the  ducts 
should  be  avoided.  In  making  a  90°  angle  turn,  the  elbow  should 


FIG.  228. — Iron  duct  construction. 

be  built  with  as  large  a  sweep  as  possible.  Illustration  Fig.  226 
shows  the  proper  construction  of  the  elbow. 

An  abrupt  reduction  in  the  size  of  the  diameter  of  the  pipe 
should  be  avoided ;  all  unnecessary  friction  is  eliminated  by  a  grad- 
ual diminution  of  the  pipe  size.  This  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  227, 
whereby  we  show  the  manner  in  which  a  small  pipe  should  be  taken 
from  a  main  duct. 

Fig.  228  shows  the  method  of  constructing  an  iron  duct  and 
by  Fig.  229  we  illustrate  the  method  of  constructing  a  brick  duct 
when  it  is  essential  for  a  portion  of  the  air  supply  to  turn  at  right 
angles,  the  remaining  quantit}T  continuing  in  the  same  direction. 

The  movements  of  air  and  water  are  in  many  respects  quite 
similar.  The  same  methods  employed  for  the  elimination  of  fric- 


250     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

tion  from  the  pipes  conveying  water  may  be  used  with  good  re- 
sults in  conducting  air.  This  is  very  clearly  illustrated  by  the  use 
of  a  double  elbow  when  it  is  necessary  to  divide  the  supply,  send- 
ing a  portion  of  it  in  either  direction. 

The  proper  arrangement  of  ducts  and  dampers  has  much  to 
do  with  the  success  or  failure  of  an  apparatus  of  this  character. 
Two  ducts,  one  conveying  the  hot  air,  the  other  conveying  the  cold 
air,  are  run  to  the  base  of  the  flue  supplying  a  room.  It  is  under- 
stood that  each  room  should  have  an  independent  supply.  Mixing 
dampers  are  placed  where  the  hot  air  and  cold  air  enter  the  flue. 


fe*. 


FIG.  229.— Brick  duct  construction. 

Fig.  230  shows  an  arrangement  of  a  damper  of  this  character  and 
the  method  of  operating  the  damper  from  within  the  room.  While 
this  mode  is  extensively  used,  nevertheless  it  is  open  to  some  objec- 
tions. The  air  currents  strike  squarely  against  the  damper  plate, 
causing  considerable  friction.  The  Sturtevant  method  is  commend- 
able and  is  clearly  illustrated  by  Fig.  231  and  Fig.  232.  As  the 
damper  is  cylindrical  in  form  it  allows  the  air  to  mix  in  proper 


MECHANICAL    VENTILATION 


quantities  at  the  will  of  the  operator  and  without  friction.  The  dial 
placed  within  each  room  and  the  chain  attachment  are  shown  by 
Fig.  233.  These  dampers  may  be  manipulated  by  a  thermostat. 
This  arrangement  we  will  show  in  a  later  chapter. 

The  screen  or  register  opening  for  the  entering  air  should  be 
placed  at  a  point  about  two  thirds  the  height  of  the  ceiling  and 


FIG.  230. — Type  of  mixing  damper. 

in  such  a  part  of  the  room  as  will  insure  the  complete  distribution 
of  the  air.  Frequently  the  proper  location  may  not  be  utilized, 
due  to  the  particular  construction  of  the  building  and  it,  there- 
fore, becomes  necessary  to  assist  the  distribution  of  the  air  in  cer- 
tain directions.  This  is  accomplished  by  means  of  a  diffuser  placed 


252     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


over  the  face  of  the  register,  as  shown  by  Fig.  234.  This  appli- 
ance breaks  up  the  volume  of  air  admitted,  deflecting  it  into  sep- 
arate currents  andJJiereby  more  effectually  warming  the  room. 


FIG.  231. — Sturtevant  mixing 
damper. 


FIG.  232. — Sturtevant  mixing  damper 
showing  chain  for  operating. 


FIG.  233.— Enlarged  view  of  dial 
and  chain. 


FIG.  234.— Diffuser  placed  over 
register  face. 


MECHANICAL    VENTILATION  253 

Factory  Heating 

Before  the  fan  and  blower  came  into  general  use  the  problem  of 
satisfactorily  heating  and  ventilating  factories  of  any  considerable 
size,  was  often  a  vexatious  one  and  the  results  as  often  obtained 
were  far  from  being  efficient  or  desirable.  The  use  of  fans  for 
exhausting  the  foul  air,  smoke  or  gases  incident  to  the  manufac- 
turing of  some  classes  of  products,  and  for  forcing  the  distribution 
of  heated  air  has  revolutionized  the  methods  of  factory  heating  and 
now  definite  results  and  efficiency  are  assured. 

The  exhaust  type  of  fan  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  211  and  Fig. 
212  may  be  employed  with  successful  results  in  the  removal  of 
foul  air  and  gases  and  for  heating  a  blower  fan  and  pipe  heater 
arranged  for  use  of  all  available  exhaust  steam  may  be  utilized. 

Probably  the  most  simple  and  the  easiest  type  of  factory  build- 
ing to  heat  and  ventilate  is  the  one-story  building.  They  are  usu- 
ally sparsely  occupied  and  the  amount  of  floor  space  devoted  to  the 
use  of  each  employe  is  considerably  larger  than  the  space  per 
capita  in  offices  or  public  buildings ;  therefore,  the  ordinary  ven- 
tilation of  the  building  is  not  a  difficult  matter.  On  the  contrary, 
with  regard  to  heating,  the  customary  factory  structure  is  well 
lighted  by  many  windows  and  not  only  presents  large  exposed 
wall  surface  to  the  action  of  the  wind  and  weather,  but  also  from 
the  form  of  its  construction  has  a  very  large  loss  of  heat  or  leak- 
age through  the  roof. 

In  a  building  where  the  process  of  manufacturing  does  not 
fill  the  air  with  poisonous  gases,  the  fan  may  be  supplied  with  air 
from  within  the  building.  Therefore,  the  loss  of  heat  is  only  that 
wasted  by  leakage,  the  air  being  turned  over  and  over  and  heated 
to  the  necessary  degree  of  temperature  to  allow  for  heat  losses 
through  windows,  walls  and  roof.  The  fan  and  heater  should  be 
centrally  located  in  order  that  an  even  distribution  of  the  heat  may 
be  secured  throughout  the  building.  The  air  is  carried  around 
the  building  in  galvanized  pipes  and  distributed  through  openings 
located  at  intervals  in  the  piping.  Fig.  235  shows  an  adaptation 
of  this  method  and  is  the  type  of  an  apparatus  designed  by  the 
Sturtevant  Company. 

When  a  factory  building  of  more  than  one  story  in  height  is 


254     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

in  process  of  erection,  flues  for  the  distribution  of  the  heated  air 
may  be  built  up  through  the  pilasters  and  thus  not  engage  any. 
space  within  the  building.  The  heated  air  may  be  supplied  to  these 
flues  through  a  brick  underground  duct  or  through  an  iron  duct 
located  in  the  basement.  For  certain  classes  of  mills  or  factories 
this  method  is  preferable  above  all  others. 

Where  a  blower  system  is  installed  in  an  old  factory  structure, 
the  most  simple  form  of  air  distribution  is  by  a  galvanized  iron 
stand  pipe,  as  shown  by  Fig.  236.  The  openings  for  each  floor 
may  be  made  in  the  manner  shown,  or  the  piping  on  each  floor  car- 
ried to  a  central  point,  the  distribution  there  taking  place. 


ii 

FIG.  235. — Sturtevant  method  of  factory  beating. 

In  one  sense  the  heating  of  factories  in  this  manner  far  excels 
all  other  methods.  The  moving  belting,  shafting  and  machinery 
all  tend  to  break  up  the  currents  of  air  and  assist  in  its  distribu- 
tion, and  the  further  fact  that  the  operatives  in  a  large  percentage 
of  all  factories  are  on  their  feet  and  moving  about,  are  not  as 
susceptible  to  draughts  or  air  currents  as  would  be  the  case 
in  a  factory  where  the  employes  were  continually  sitting  or  re- 
mained inactive.  This  circumstance  renders  the  location  of  air 
outlets  and  the  installation  of  blower  systems  a  comparatively 
easy  task. 

The  shape  and  size  of  the  building  and  the  usage  to  which  it  is 
put  are  factors  which  largely  govern  the  form  of  the  apparatus 
and  the  method  of  installation. 


MECHANICAL    VENTILATION 


255 


Relative  Cost  of  Installation  and  Operation 

No  direct  comparison  between  the  cost  of  installing  a  fan  or 
blower  system  and  any  one  of  the  other  methods  of  heating,  viz., 


FIG.  236. — Another  form  of  factory  heating. 


furnaces,  steam  or  hot  water,  can  well  be  made,  as  the  cost  of  a 
blower  system  increases  or  decreases  according;  to  the  rates  of  air 


256     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

change  demanded,  that  is,  the  number  of  times  per  hour,  the  air 
within  each  room  shall  be  changed ;  in  other  words,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  apparatus  and  not  necessarily  according  to  the  size 
of  the  building.  On  the  contrary,  the  cost  of  a  direct  or  indirect 
system  of  heating,  steam  or  hot  water,  without  ventilation,  increases 
in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  building  and  the  added  cost  for  ven- 
tilation may  be  much  or  little,  corresponding  to  the  amount  of 
ventilation  or  air  changes  secured. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  as  a  people  we  will  not  tolerate  cold 
rooms,  but  that  we  will  tolerate  a  vitiated  atmosphere,  to  which 
we  would  add  that  such  toleration  on  the  part  of  the  owners  of 
many  buildings  is  carried  to  such  an  extent  that  the  buildings  fre- 
quently are  unsanitary  and  unhealthy,  conditions  which  are  reme- 
died only  when  pressure  is  brought  to  bear  upon  the  owner. 
It  is  probable  that  the  cost  of  installing  an  indirect  system  of  heat- 
ing with  "  assisted "  ventilation  is  in  excess  of  the  cost  of  the 
blower  system  when  the  volume  of  air  moved  is  considered. 

The  cost  of  operation,  labor  of  attention  required  and  expense 
for  fuel  for  the  blower  system  of  heating  are  not  very  much  in 
excess  of  the  cost  of  operating  other  systems.  Our  public  schools, 
a  class  of  buildings,  many  of  them  quite  similar  in  arrangement 
and  design,  the  rooms  averaging  30'  X  36'  in  size  and  from  12  to 
14  feet  high,  and  provided  for  the  use  of  from  fifty  to  sixty  schol- 
ars, form  a  very  good  basis  for  comparison  as  to  expense  of  main- 
tenance (labor  and  fuel)  for  the  heating  and  ventilating  appara- 
tus. Carefully  preserved  records  show  some  interesting  data.  The 
cost  for  mechanical  heating  and  ventilation  for  a  school  building 
of,  say,  twenty  rooms  is  less  per  room  than  for  an  eight  or  ten 
room  school.  Where  furnaces  are  used  there  is  very  little  difference 
in  the  cost  of  labor  of  attendance,  or  for  fuel  per  room. 

The  records  of  one  city  show  a  comparison  of  costs,  as  fol- 
lows :  For  five  schools  provided  with  a  fan  and  direct  and  indirect 
system  the  cost  per  room  for  attendance  averaged  $62.00  and  for 
fuel  $71.00.  For  six  schools  provided  with  a  direct  and  indirect 
system  (assisted  ventilation)  the  cost  per  room  for  attendance 
averaged  $61.00  and  for  fuel  $70.00.  For  twelve  schools  with  fur- 
nace heat  and  ventilation  the  attendance  averaged  $52.00  per  room 
and  the  fuel  $72.00.  For  two  schools  heated  with  a  direct  steam 


MECHANICAL    VENTILATION  257 

apparatus  (no  ventilation)  the  cost  of  attendance  averaged  $58.00 
per  room  and  fuel  $45.00. 

Upon  comparing  the  figures  we  find  that  the  fuel  bill  for  heat 
without  ventilation  averaged  $45.00,  or  $27.00  per  room  less  than 
for  furnaces  with  the  amount  of  ventilation  they  provided ;  $25.00 
less  than  for  direct  and  indirect  heating  and  assisted  ventilation 
and  $26.00  less  than  for  the  fan  system  of  ventilation  with  direct 
and  indirect  heating.  Thus  the  cost  of  ventilation  approximated 
$25.00,  $26.00  or  $27.00  per  room  for  fuel,  with  attendance  cost- 
ing but  a  very  little  more  than  for  direct  steam  and  no  ventilation, 
and  there  seems  to  be  no  question  but  what  those  schools  equipped 
with  a  fan  were  better  ventilated  than  any  of  the  others. 

Many  other  comparisons  show  the  expense  for  fuel  with  a  me- 
chanical ventilating  apparatus  to  be  less  than  that  incurred  with 
furnaces,  while  the  cost  of  attendance,  due  to  more  skillful  labor 
demanded,  was  approximately  one  third  greater  than  for  the  at- 
tendance given  the  furnaces. 

Another  item  of  interest  in  the  comparison  of  tests  shows  that 
year  by  year  the  expense  of  maintenance  for  the  mechanical  sys- 
tems remained  very  nearly  the  same,  while  the  figures  furnished 
for  furnaces  and  other  systems  vary  largely. 

An  average  of  all  records  at  hand  reveals  that  the  actual  cost 
of  heating  is  less  for  the  blower  system  than  for  other  methods,  and 
that  whatever  further  increase  in  cost  is  shown  is  chargeable  to 
the  ventilating  portion  of  the  apparatus,  this  increase  being  much 
or  little  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  air  pro- 
vided for  ventilation. 

Apparatus  for  Testing  Systems  of  Heating  and  Ventilation 

In  order  to  make  a  test  of  any  mechanical  apparatus  it  is 
necessary  that  instruments  of  absolute  and  positive  accuracy  be 
used  in  making  and  recording  the  test.  This  is  particularly  true 
in  testing  systems  of  mechanical  heating  and  ventilation,  as  re- 
gards temperature  of  steam  or  highly  heated  air,  the  velocity  and 
the  amount  of  moisture  or  humidity  in  the  air  under  varying 
conditions. 

A  type  of  thermometer  for  conducting  a  test  at  high  tem- 
peratures is  illustrated  by  Fig.  237.  This  consists  of  a  high- 


258     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

grade  thermometer,  the  tube  of  which  is  inclosed  in  a  brass  casing. 
The  thread  at  the  bottom  is  a  standard-pipe  thread  and  can  be 
screwed  into  any  ordinary  fitting.  As  shown  by  the  illustration, 
the  bulb  extends  well  down  into  the  opening  into  which  it  is 


FIG.  238. — Anemometer. 


FIG.  237. — High-temperature  thermometer. 

screwed  in  order  to  insure  that  the  reading  on  the  instrument 
scale  will  be  accurate.  The  bulb  is  protected  by  a  section  of  thin 
brass  pipe  as  shown. 

The  movement  or  velocity  of  air  through  ducts  or  openings 
may  be  readily  determined  by  the  anemometer,  or  air  meter,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  238.  The  indications  are  obtained  by  the  revo- 
lution of  a  series  of  fans,  acting  first  on  a  long  hand,  capable 
of  recording  the  low  velocity  of  fifty  feet  per  minute  on  a  large 
dial  divided  to  100  feet,  and  then  successively  by  a  train  of 
wheels  on  the  indices  of  five  smaller  dials,  each  divided  into  ten 
parts,  and  recording  respectively  1,000,  10,000,  100,000  and 


MECHANICAL    VENTILATION 


259 


10,000,000  feet  or  1,894  miles,  an  amount  found  to  be  more  than 
adequate  to  the  most  protracted  observations.  A  disconnection  is 
provided  on  the  rim  of  the  instrument,  which  sets  the  recording 
hands  in  or  out  of  gear  without  influencing  the  uniform  rotation 
of  the  fans.  The  velocity  recorded  by  the  anemometer  multiplied 


FIG.  239.— Wet-bulb  hygrometer. 

by  the  area  of  the  air  pipe  or  orifice  through  which  the  air  is 
moving  will  give  the  total  volume  of  air  passing. 

An  instrument  for  noting  the  percentage  of  saturation  of  the 
air  (humidity)  is  called  a  Hygrometer  and  is  illustrated  by  Fig. 


260    PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


Various  forms  of  this  instrument  have  been  devised;  that 
shown  by  the  illustration  is  a  standard  type. 

The  atmosphere  surrounding  us  is  seldom  dry  or  completely 
saturated  with  moisture  and  the  amount  of  aqueous  vapor  held  in 
suspension  is  very  changeable.  This  fact  bears  an  important 
part  when  considering  the  hygienic  qualities  of  the  atmosphere. 
As  we  have  already  noted,  a  certain  amount  of  moisture  in  the 
air  is  essential  to  good  health  and  the  importance  of  maintaining 
the  proper  proportion  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  within  our 
homes  and  public  buildings  we  have  commented  upon  in  a  former 
chapter  of  this  book.  Particularly  is  this  true  in  hospitals  or 
in  the  sick  chamber. 

In  speaking  of  the  humidity  in  the  air  we  hear  much  of  the 
"  dew  point."  Dew  is  formed  by  the  radiation  of  heat  from  the 
surfaces  of  trees,  plants,  etc.,  consequently  reducing  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  near  the  immediate  surfaces  of  such  objects  to 
the  point  of  complete  saturation,  causing  moisture  to  be  deposited. 

With  a  complete  heating  and  ventilating  apparatus,  that  is, 
with  an  air  heating,  cleansing  and  moistening  apparatus,  any  kind 
of  climate  may  be  produced  and  is  registered  or  recorded  by  the 
Hygrometer.  The  Hygrometer  has  two  thermometers — a  "  dry  " 
thermometer  and  a  "  wet  "  thermometer,  as  indicated  by  the  illus- 
tration. These  are  mounted  on  the  face  of  the  instrument.  The 
bulb  of  the  dry  thermometer  is  exposed  to  the  air;  the  bulb  of 
the  wet  thermometer  is  surrounded  by  a  piece  of  silk,  cotton  or 
wick.  As  evaporation  causes  a  loss  of  heat,  the  thermometer 
with  the  wet  bulb  will  read  lower  than  the  other,  provided  there 
is  any  degree  of  dryness  in  the  air.  When  the  air  is  very  dry 
the  difference  of  register  between  the  two  thermometers  will  be 
great,  the  variation  lessening  according  to  the  degree  of  moisture 
in  the  air,  until  at  complete  saturation  both  will  read  alike,  as 
then  there  can  be  no  evaporation.  To  use  the  hygrometer  the 
wet  bulb  and  attached  wicking  should  be  thoroughly  saturated 
with  water.  The  small  reservoir  under  the  wet  bulb  should  be 
filled  with  water  and  the  loose  end  of  the  wicking  should  dip  into 
it.  As  fast  as  the  water  evaporates  from  the  wet  wicking  cover- 
ing the  bulb,  it  will  draw  its  supply  from  the  reservoir  by  capil- 
lary action  of  the  wick  and  so  keep  the  bulb  constantly  wet. 


MECHANICAL    VENTILATION  261 

Having  prepared  the  hygrometer  for  work,  expose  it  in  the 
atmosphere  to  be  tested  for  a  period  of  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes. 
Then  note  the  readings  of  both  thermometers,  the  dry  and  wet 
bulbs.  Ascertain  the  number  of  degrees  difference  by  subtraction. 
In  the  center  of  the  instrument  is  a  cylinder  with  a  knob  at  the 
top  for  turning  by  hand,  upon  which  is  inscribed  a  series  of  col- 
umns of  figures  numbered  at  their  headings  from  1  to  22.  These 
numbers  represent  the  difference  in  the  readings  of  the  wet  bulb 
and  dry  bulb  thermometers  and  the  columns  show  the  relative 
humidity  or  percentage  of  moisture  in  the  air  for  every  degree 
of  temperature  indicated  by  the  thermometers.  Having  ascer- 
tained the  number  of  degrees  difference  in  the  reading  of  the 
thermometers,  turn  the  knob  of  the  cylinder  until  this  number 
is  exposed  at  the  top  of  the  column  and  opposite  the  opening  in 
front  and  in  line  with  the  reading  of  the  wet  bulb  thermometer. 
On  the  scale  of  the  cylinder  will  be  found  the  number  representing 
the  percentage  of  humidity  in  the  atmosphere,  absolute  saturation 
being  100°. 

Various  forms  of  siphon  gauges  for  water  or  mercury  are 
manufactured  for  indicating  vacuum  or  pressure.  These  are  pro- 
vided with  couplings  for  attaching  to  pipe  or  reservoir,  the  pres- 
sure or  vacuum  being  shown  by  the  difference  in  the  level  of  the 
liquid  in  the  two  arms  of  the  glass  siphon. 


CHAPTER    XXII 

Steam  Appliances 

THE  appliances  used  in  connection  with  a  steam  boiler  for 
power  or  heating  purposes  are  many  and  varied  in  character. 
Steam  Traps  for  removing  the  water  of  condensation  without 
waste  of  steam,  Separators  for  removing  oil  and  other  impurities 
from  the  water  within  the  apparatus,  or  the  water  held  in  sus- 
pension in  saturated  steam,  Steam  Pumps,  Inspirators,  Injectors, 
Boiler  Feeders  and  Return  Traps  for  returning  the  water  of 
condensation  or  feed  water  to  the  boiler  against  whatever  pressure 
is  used,  Mechanical  Apparatus  for  automatically  controlling  the 
draught,  Pump  Governors  and  Feed-water  Heaters,  etc.,  all  have 
their  separate  and  several  offices  to  perform. 

While  our  work  has  to  do  only  with  boilers  as  used  for  heat- 
ing and  ventilation,  the  same  conditions  of  handling  the  water  of 
condensation,  regulation  of  pressures  and  separation  of  impuri- 
ties apply  as  to  a  boiler  used  for  power  purposes. 

These  steam  specialties  are  so  numerous  and  different  in  char- 
acter that  we  can  illustrate  but  few  of  them,  mention  the  salient 
features  of  each  and  discuss  with  our  readers  their  work  in  con- 
nection with  a  power  or  heating  apparatus. 

Steam  Traps 

Steam  traps  are  of  two  general  kinds  or  classes:  Those  used 
to  separate  the  water  from  and  thereby  relieve  steam  pipes  or 
heating  surfaces,  and  those  used  for  returning  to  the  boiler  the 
water  of  condensation  from  the  steam  employed  for  heating  or  for 
mechanical  purposes. 

In  the  first  division  there  are  many  kinds :  Expansion  traps, 
whose  action  depends  upon  the  difference  in  the  expansion  of  two 
metals,  such  as  the  Heintz  Trap,  Fig.  240  and  the  Kieley  Canti- 


STEAM    APPLIANCES 


263 


lever  Expansion  Trap,  Fig.  241 :  Bucket  or  "  Pot  "  Traps  con- 
structed with  a  hollow  metal  bucket  inside  the  trap,  which,  when 


FIG.  240.— Heintz  trap. 


FIG.  241. — Kieley  cantilever  expansion  trap. 

filled  with  the  return  water,  opens  a  valve,  allowing  the  trap  to 
operate  and  the  bucket  to  empty.     A  trap  of  this  character  is 


FIG.  243.— Nason  bucket 
trap. 


FIG.  24-2. — Albany  bucket  trap. 


shown  by  Fig.  242,  which  illustrates  the  Albany  Trap,  and  Fig. 
243  which  illustrates  a  trap  of  the  familiar  Xason  type. 


264     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

The  Kieley   Special  Trap,  shown  by  Fig.  244  is  not  unlike 
the  others  in  the  principle  of  making  use  of  a  metal  bucket.     It 


FIG.  244. — Kieley  special  trap. 

has,  however,  a  special  form  of  valve — a  balanced  or  double- 
seated  valve,  giving  it  an  extremely  large  capacity  for  handling 
rapid  condensation,  as  in  a  low-pressure  heating  apparatus. 


OUTLET 


MSB 


BLOW  OFF 


FIG.  245. — Wright  emergency  trap. 

The  float  type  of  trap   has   many   adherents.      The  Wright 
Emergency  Trap,  as  illustrated  by  Fig.   245,  is  a  particularly 


STEAM    APPLIANCES  265 

good  representation  of  this  type  of  trap,  the  illustration  being 
so  clear  as  to  require  almost  no  explanation.  The  condensation 
enters  the  trap  through  the  inlet  opening  and  fills  the  pot  some- 
what more  than  half  of  its  height,  when  the  copper  float  rises, 
opening  the  discharge  valves  (of  which  there  are  three)  at  the 
top  of  the  trap.  Note  by  the  small  detail  of  the  valve  shown  on 
the  left  of  the  illustration  that  the  points  of  the  three  valve  stems 
are  set  at  varying  heights.  The  center  valve  is  the  one  in  regular 
operation.  Should  a  rush  of  water  enter  the  trap,  the  float  will 
quickly  rise,  the  arms  at  the  bottom  engaging  the  rods  on  either 
side  cnnecting  with  the  valve  stems,  thus  allowing  the  three  valves 
to  act  in  unison  while  the  rush  of  water  continues,. 


FIG.  246.— Standard  ball  float  trap. 

Another  of  this  type  of  trap  is  shown  by  illustration  Fig.  24)6, 
which  is  the  Standard  Ball  Float  Trap,  the  operation  of  which  is 
quite  similar  to  that  already  described,  excepting  that  it  has  but 
one  valve. 

Other  traps  combining  the  float  principle  with  the  balanced 
valve,  or  with  the  expansion  feature  are  manufactured,  as  are  also 
others  making  use  of  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  some  chemi- 
cal or  sensitive  liquid.  Those  illustrated,  however,  may  be  con- 
sidered as  representative  types  of  traps  employing  the  principles 
described. 

The  open  trap  discharging  into  the  atmosphere,  or  against 
slight  pressure  was  invented  by  Mr.  Joseph  Nason,  a  heating 


266     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

engineer  and  contractor  of  New  York,  and  the  original  Nason 
Trap  was  quite  similar  to  those  of  the  same  name  in  use  at  the 
present  time. 

Return  Traps 

The  returning  of  the  water  of  condensation  to  a  boiler  on 
which  the  pressure  is  much  greater  than  on  the  return  pipes  pre- 
sents an  altogether  different  problem  from  that  of  drawing  the 
water  from  a  system  without  the  loss  of  steam.  To  Mr.  Jas.  H. 
Blessing,  of  Albany,  is  due  the  credit  for  the  first  successful 
efforts  in  this  direction.  Circumstances  arising  with  regard  to 
the  heating  of  the  factory  of  Townsend  &  Jackson,  known  as  the 
Townsend  Furnace  &  Machine  Works,  by  whom  Mr.  Blessing  was 
employed  as  superintendent,  made  it  necessary  to  return  the  water 
of  condensation  to  the  boiler  by  some  other  means  than  gravity. 
Mr.  Blessing  tells  some  interesting  facts  regarding  this.  He 
says: 

"  During  the  year  1870  the  proprietors  of  the  Townsend 
works  deemed  it  best  to  remove  their  establishment  down  to  the 
river  front.  As  the  area  of  the  new  works  was  to  be  considerably 
greater  than  that  of  the  old,  it  was  necessary  to  make  some 
changes  in  the  heating  system.  I  concluded  to.  use  the  exhaust 
steam  for  heating  the  foundry  and  part  of  the  upper  floors,  and 
to  heat  the  offices,  machine  and  pattern  shops  with  direct  steam 
taken  from  a  boiler  to  be  specially  installed  for  that  purpose. 
I  intended  that  the  boiler  should  be  set  in  a  pit  so  that  the  water 
of  condensation  from  the  heating  system  of  the  lower  floors 
would  gravitate  into  it.  After  having  settled  on  this  plan,  be- 
lieving it  to  be  all  right,  I  arranged  with  a  contractor  to  remove 
as  much  as  possible  of  the  old  heating  system  and  replace  it  in 
the  new  works  and  to  furnish  all  the  extra  pipe  and  fittings  neces- 
sary to  complete  the  system  as  I  had  planned  it.  After  arrang- 
ing with  the  contractor  I  paid  very  little  attention  to  the  matter 
as  we  had  over  a  hundred  men  employed  in  the  different  shops 
and  my  time  and  attention  were  fully  occupied  with  the  details 
of  the  business  and  the  removal  of  the  works.  Therefore,  I  did 
not  discover  the  gross  error  I  had  made  until  after  nearly  all 
the  work  was  done,  with  the  exception  of  the  setting  of  the  boiler. 


STEAM    APPLIANCES 


267 


You  can  imagine  my  position,  after  explaining  to  my  employers 
what  a  simple  and  effective  plan  I  had  devised  for  the  return  of 
the  water  of  condensation  back  to  the  boiler,  when  I  learned  how 
impracticable  it  was  to  place  the  boiler  low  enough  to  have  the 
water  from  the  lower  floors  gravitate  into  it,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  each  tide  caused  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  river  to  rise 
higher  than  the  fire  box  of  the  boiler.  In  order  to  overcome 
this  condition  it  would  be  necessary  to  set  the  boiler  in  a  tank 
anchored  to  prevent  its  floating. 

"  This  would  have  been  very  expensive  and,  under  the  circum- 
stances, impossible. 

"  After  having  discovered  the  character  of  the  problem  that 
confronted  me,  my  first  thought  was  to  secure  a  trap  that  would 


FIG.  247. — Early  type  of  Albany  return  trap. 

return  the  water  of  condensation  to  the  boiler  without  the  aid 
of  pumps.  After  making  a  thorough  inquiry,  I  failed  to  learn 
of  any  such  device. 

"  In  an  effort  to  solve  the  problem  presented,  my  mind  turned 
naturally  to  the  thought  of  returning  the  water  of  condensation 
to  the  boiler  by  gravity,  and  my  first  experiments  were  all  in  that 
direction.  My  first  return-steam  traps,  invented  during  the  year 
1871,  Fig.  247,  were  placed  above  the  water  level  in  the  boiler, 
the  steam  being  taken  from  the  steam  space  of  the  boiler  and 
acting  upon  the  upper  side  of  a  diaphragm  contained  within  the 


268     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

trap  and  intended  for  equalizing  the  pressures.  This  diaphragm 
acted  simply  as  a  dividing  wall  between  the  water  on  the  one  side 
and  the  steam  on  the  other.  The  steam  used  for  each  discharge 
of  water  from  the  trap  was,  as  in  the  case  of  a  steam  pump,  ex- 
hausted to  the  atmosphere.  Although  the  diaphragm  trap  was 
successful  in  its  operation,  yet  it  failed  to  return  all  of  the  water 
and  did  not  make  up  for  the  error  I  had  made. 

"  In  my  experiments  with  the  diaphragm  trap  several  inter- 
esting facts  came  to  light.  Among  other  things,  I  discovered 
that  the  inlet  pipe  for  conveying  the  water  of  condensation  to 
the  trap  receiver  from  the  coils  contained  steam  and  water,  for, 
after  the  first  condensation,  due  to  the  extra  amount  of  steam 
condensed  when  steam  was  first  let  into  the  heating  apparatus* 
was  worked  off  by  a  few  rapid  discharges  of  the  trap,  it  would 
require  several  minutes  to  collect  water  enough  to  again  fill  the 
trap.  While  this  was  filling  up  one  could  hear  the  inlet  check 
valve  on  the  inlet  pipe  rattling  on  its  seat,  caused  by  the  water 
and  steam  passing  through  it.  As  a  result  of  this  observation 
and  the  experiments  I  had  been  making,  it  occurred  to  me  that 
after  all  the  coils  and  radiators  were  only  a  part  of  the  direct 
steam  pipe  that  conveyed  the  steam  from  the  boiler  through  them 
and  finally  terminated  in  the  small  pipes  used  for  collecting  the 
water  of  condensation. 

"  If  this  smaller  return  pipe  were  connected,  so  I  reasoned,  to 
the  top  of  a  vessel  of  proper  size  placed  a  certain  distance  above 
the  water  level  of  the  boiler,  the  water  and  steam  would  pass 
over  into  such  receiver,  the  water  falling  to  the  bottom  and  sepa- 
rating itself  from  the  steam.  The  steam  pressure  in  the  receiving 
vessel  would  be  about  the  same  as  the  pressure  in  the  system  at 
its  farthest  point  from  the  boiler.  If  this  pressure  were  near 
enough  to  that  in  the  boiler  and  the  receiver  were  placed  at  a 
height  sufficient  above  the  water  level  in  the  boiler  so  that  the 
solid  water  column  \vould  make  up  for  the  difference  in  the  pres- 
sures, the  water  would  gravitate  back  into  the  boiler  through  a 
return  pipe  extending  from  the  bottom  of  the  receiver.  With 
this  understanding  of  the  conditions,  I  prepared  a  spherical  vessel 
twelve  inches  in  diameter  as  the  receiver  to  be  used  in  the  system 
with  which  I  was  experimenting.  I  believed  that  a  receiver  of 


STEAM    APPLIANCES  269 

the  size  mentioned  would  be  ample  for  the  purpose  as  the  capacity 
was  less  than  one  gallon  per  minute.  The  receiver  was  placed  on 
the  floor  above  the  boiler  where  the  coils  were  situated  and  about 
nine  feet  above  the  water  level  in  the  boiler.  After  the  receiver 
was  connected  up  and  steam  turned  on  and  the  first  water  and  air 
removed  by  blowing  to  the  atmosphere,  circulation  began  and  was 
perfectly  maintained.  This,  I  believe,  was  the  first  steam  loop 
ever  made  to  return  the  water  of  condensation  from  a  steam  sys- 
tem situated  below  the  water  level  of  the  boiler  whence  the  water 
issued  in  the  form  of  steam,  all  without  in  any  way  opening  to 
the  atmosphere. 

"  After  the  steam  loop  had  been  in  successful  operation  for 
some  time  in  the  Townsend  &  Jackson  works  I  thought  I  would 
test  it  in  another  place.  Accordingly,  I  selected  the  plant  of 
Mess.  Weed  &  Parsons,  printers,  of  Albany,  where  a  modern  heat- 
Ing  system,  using  steam  direct  from  the  boiler,  had  just  been 
installed.  On  investigation,  I  found  a  place  about  ten  feet  above 
the  water  level  in  the  boiler  where  the  receiver  could  be  placed. 
After  getting  the  system  connected  up  and  making  several  at- 
tempts to  start  a  circulation,  I  met  only  with  failure.  I  next 
concluded  to  try  the  steam  pressures  and  found  a  difference  of 
about  eight  pounds  between  that  of  the  boiler  and  the  coils.  This 
explained  to  me  the  reason  for  the  failure  to  get  up  a  circulation, 
for  it  would  require  for  the  height  of  the  return  column  of  water 
about  twenty-four  feet,  or  over  twice  the  space  available.  Owing 
to  the  conditions  under  which  the  system  was  installed  I  could 
not  get  a  place  sufficiently  high  for  the  receiver  and  could  not 
without  great  expense  enlarge  the  main  steam-supply  pipe  so  as 
to  make  the  pressures  more  nearly  equal.  I  then  made  a  change 
by  taking  the  receiver  and  suspending  it  on  one  end  of  a  counter- 
balanced lever  and  added  a  steam  valve  for  admitting  steam  direct 
from  the  boiler  into  the  top  of  the  receiver  for  the  purpose  of 
equalizing  the  pressure  with  that  in  the  boiler.  This  steam  valve 
was  caused  to  open  and  close  automatically  by  the  rising  and 
falling  of  the  receiver.  In  the  form  here  shown  in  the  cut,  Fig. 
5248,  this  trap  was  known  as  the  Albany  Gravity  Return-steam 
Trap." 

During  the  period  following  the  introduction   of  this   trap, 


270    PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

improvements  were  added  and  the  Albany  Return  Trap  as  used 
at  the  present  time  has  all  valves  and  other  mechanism  inclosed 
within  the  body  of  the  Trap  itself.  As  will  be  seen  by  the  illus- 


FIG.  248. — Albany  gravity  return  trap. 

tration,  Fig.  249,  the  bucket  of  the  Trap  rests  on  a  hinged  pivot 
at  one  side  of  the  bucket.  As  the  return  water  enters  the  space 
between  the  bucket  and  the  outer  wall  of  the  Trap,  the  bucket  is 


FIG.  249. — The  Albany  return  trap. 

tilted  slightly,  allowing  the  ball  weight  "  C  "  to  slide  to  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  Trap,  giving  a  sudden  impetus  to  the  tilting  move- 
ment, which  seats  the  equalizing  steam  valve  and  at  the  same  time 


STEAM    APPLIANCES 


271 


opens  the  exhaust  valve.  The  bucket  is  held  in  this  position  until 
the  "water  flows  over  the  top  edge  and  fills  it,  when  it  again  tilts 
downward  under  the  impetus  of  the  preponderance  of  weight  and 
the  movement  of  the  ball  weight  returning  to  its  original  posi- 
tion. This  movement  opens  the  equalizing  valve,  admitting  steam 
direct  from  the  boiler  into  the  trap,  thus  equalizing  the  pressure 
between  the  boiler  and  the  trap,  whereupon  the  water  in  the 
bucket  will  feed  through  the  siphon-pipe  connection  down  and 
into  the  boiler.  As  the  bucket  is  again  tilted  it  closes  the  equal- 


FIG.  250. — Method  of  connecting  Albany  return  trap. 

izing  valve  against  the  steam  pressure,  the  Trap  refilling  as 
before.  The  Return  Trap  should  be  located  at  least  three  feet 
above  the  water  line  of  the  boiler. 

We  illustrate  by  Fig.  250  the  general  method  of  connecting 
the  trap.  The  condensation  collects  in  the  cast-iron  pot  or  re- 
ceiver. The  pressure  on  this  receiver  from  the  heating  system 
raises  the  water  to  the  trap,  which  returns  it  to  the  boiler. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  return  traps,  the  same  general 
principle  of  equalizing  pressures  being  employed,  although  the 
methods  of  operating  the  traps  differ  widely.  The  Champion 
and  the  Pratt  &  Cady  Traps  work  by  balanced  weights.  The 
Bundy  Return  Trap  differs  from  all  of  the  others  in  that  no 


272    PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

movable  or  balanced  weights  are  used.  Fig.  251  shows  the  form 
of  this  trap  and  the  method  of  making  connections.  The  trap 
consists  of  a  cast-iron  bowl  which  swings  on  trunnions,  moving 
in  a  vertical  travel.  When  the  trap  is  empty  the  bowl  rests 
against  the  top  of  the  frame  surrounding  it,  the  weight  of  the 
ball  on  the  overhanging  lever  holding  it  in  this  position  when 
empty  or  while  filling.  When  the  bowl  fills  with  water  to  a  point 
where  the  weight  of  the  water  combined  with  the  weight  of  the 


FIG.  251. — Bundy  return  trap  and  method  of  connecting. 

bowl  overbalances  the  weight  of  the  ball,  the  trap  drops  until 
it  rests  on  the  under  side  of  the  frame  already  alluded  to.  In 
making  this  movement  it  closes  the  air  valve  and  opens  the  equal- 
izing valve,  allowing  the  steam  at  boiler  pressure  to  enter  the  bowl 
on  top  of  the  water,  through  the  curved  equalizing  pipe  shown 
in  the  bowl  of  the  trap.  Thus  the  pressures  on  the  trap  and  the 
boiler  are  equalized.  The  water  in  the  bowl  now  runs  unob- 
structed out  of  the  opening  through  which  it  entered  the  bowl 
and  drops  by  gravity  through  the  check  valve  on  the  return  pipe 


STEAM    APPLIANCES 


273 


and  into  the  boiler.  In  returning  to  its  first  position  the  bowl 
closes  the  equalizing  valve  and  opens  the  air  valve  and  is  again 
in  readiness  to  receive  the  returning  condensation.  There  must 
always  be  sufficient  pressure  on  the  returns  or  receiver  to  lift  the 
water  to  the  trap.  Where  this  pressure  (one  pound  for  each  two 
feet  of  lift)  is  not  available,  the  duplex  system,  or  use  of  two 
traps,  is  necessary. 

The  office  of  the  lower  or  secondary  trap  is  to  receive  the 
water  of  condensation  from  the  heating  coils,  or  other  source, 
by  gravity  and  in  turn  lift  or  deliver  it  to  the  upper  trap,  which 
returns  it  to  the  boiler.  It  is  claimed  for  return  traps  that  they 
will  handle  water  much  hotter  than  a  pump  and  with  less  loss  in 
heat  units. 

Separators 

Separators  for  removing  moisture  from  steam  and  oil,  or 
other  impurities  from  feed  water,  are  made  in  various  forms.  The 
nature  of  all  of  them  is  to  receive  the  steam  through  the  inlet 


FIG.  252. — Kieley  separator. 

opening  of  the  separator,  directing  it  against  a  series  of  baffle 
plates.  This  action  removes  the  oil  or  water  and  delivers  the 
purified  steam  without  loss  of  pressure  into  the  supply  main  of 
the  heating  system.  The  oil  or  water  so  extracted  drips  into  the 


274     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


lower  chamber  of  the  separator,  from  which  it  is  removed  through 
a  drip  pipe.  On  an  exhaust  heating  system  the  separator  is  in- 
dispensable. When  used  to  extract  oil  or  other  impurities  from 
the  exhaust  it  is  placed  on  the  exhaust  pipe  with  the  baffle  plates 
facing  toward  the  engine.  When  employed  to  remove  the  moist- 
ure from  steam  it  is  placed  on  the  main  steam  pipe  with  the  plates 
facing  toward  the  boiler. 

Many  separators  are  in  satisfactory  use.     An  Austin,  Bundy, 


FIG.  253. — Bundy  separator. 


FIG.  254. — Bundy  separator  bailie  or 
separating  plate. 


Kieley,  or  other  make,  may  be  found  in  the  boiler  room  of  nearly 
every  power  or  heating  plant. 

As  representative  of  the  separators  having  stationary  cast- 
iron  bafflle  plates  in  the  chamber  of  the  separator,  we  illustrate  the 
Kieley  design,  Fig.  252. 

The  Bundy  Separator,  Fig.  253,  is  illustrative  of  the  type  of 
separator  with  removable  baffle  plates  and  shows  clearly  the 
character  of  it.  A  nest  of  six  or  more  baffle  plates,  or  more  prop- 


STEAM    APPLIANCES  275 

erly,  separating  plates,  as  shown  by  Fig.  254,  are  grouped  in  the 
upper  chamber  of  the  separator.  The  pillars  of  these  plates  are 
staggered,  the  steam  passing  through  and  around  them.  Each 
pillar  or  column  is  channeled  its  entire  length,  the  small  openings 
through  the  face  of  each  column  communicating  with  the  vertical 
channel  through  which  the  water  or  oil  passes  by  gravity  to  the 
receiving  chamber  below. 

The  plates  may  be  easily  removed  for  cleaning, — a  very  neces- 
sary factor  when  the  separator  is  employed  to  remove  oil  or  other 
impurities  from  the  exhaust. 

Feed-water  Heaters 

When  the  hot  water  from  the  condensed  steam  is  used  for 
other  purposes  and  it  is  necessary  to  feed  the  boiler  with  fresh 
water,  or,  again,  when  the  return  water,  trapped  or  pumped  to 
the  boiler,  has  lost  the  bulk  of  heat  units  contained  in  it,  a  very 
great  saving  may  be  effected  by  reheating  this  water  before  sup- 
plying it  to  the  boiler.  Engineers  are  agreed  that  for  each  10 
degrees  this  water  is  heated,  a  saving  of  1  per  cent  of  the  fuel 
is  realized. 

Before  the  closed  type  of  feed-water  heater  came  into  use 
it  was  customary  to  run  the  water  of  condensation  or  the  fresh 
water  into  an  open  tank  or  hot  well,  heating  it  by  steam  coils  or 
by  turning  the  exhaust  into  it,  whence  it  was  pumped  into  the 
boiler. 

Frequentlv  the  water  supplied  to  the  feed-water  heater  is 
partially  heated  by  coils  in  drip  tanks,  thereby  making  use  of 
heat  units  which  otherwise  might  be  wasted.  Progress  along  the 
lines  of  steam  engineering  has  shown  the  advisability  of  saving 
all  heat  units  possible,  being  conducive  to  economy  in  the  con- 
sumption of  fuel.  The  fact  has  been  demonstrated  that  the  feed- 
ing of  cold  water  direct  to  the  boiler  creates  a  straining,  due  to 
expansion  and  contraction,  which  must  necessarily  shorten  the  life 
of  the  boiler. 

When  the  temperature  of  the  feed  water  is  raised  from  an 
average  of  60  degrees  to  a  temperature  of  from  200  to  212  de- 
grees, a  saving  of  about  15  per  cent  of  the  fuel  is  effected.  With- 
out entering;  into  a  discussion  of  the  relative  merits  of  various 


276     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

types  of  feed-water  heaters  we  may  say  that  a  good  heater  to 
adopt  is  one  which  is  so  constructed  as  to  admit  of  easy  cleaning, 
one  whose  area  for  the  passage  of  the  exhaust  is  sufficiently  great 


FIG.  255. — Bundy  type  of  feed-water  heater. 

to  show  no  back  pressure,  and  one  in  which  the  expansion  and 
contraction  of  the  inner  tubes  are  fully  provided  for.  Fig.  255 
illustrates  one  type  of  a  feed-water  heater  of  this  character. 

Steam  Pumps 

One  method  of  returning  water  to  a  boiler  is  by  the  use  of 
a  boiler  feed  pump.  It  is  entirely  probable  that  no  branch  of 
steam  engineering  has  received  more  attention  than  that  of  pump- 
ing machinery.  Steam  pumps  are  manufactured  in  a  multitude 
of  designs  and  sizes  for  regular  and  special  purposes,  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  pump  having  been  carried  to  such  an  extent  that  all 
liquids,  including  chemicals,  may  be  pumped  from  one  receptacle 
and  delivered  to  another  under  all  sorts  of  conditions.  Air  or 
gas  may  be  pumped  and  where  steam  power  is  not  available, 
electrically  operated  pumps  may  be  employed.  Our  use  of  pumps 
has  only  to  do  with  pumping  the  water  supply  to  the  boiler  or 
in  removing  the  condensation  from  a  heating  system  and  creating 
and  maintaining  a  vacuum  on  the  heating  system. 


STEAM    APPLIANCES  277 

Boiler  Feed  Pumps 

For  this  purpose  many  standard  makes  are  in  evidence,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  Knowles,  Marsh,  Blake  and  Deane 
Pumps.  Fig.  256  illustrates  the  Knowles  Direct-acting  Steam 
Pump.  This  pump  has  many  features  to  recommend  it,  chief 
of  which  is  the  simplicity  of  its  construction.  An  auxiliary 
piston  working  in  the  steam  chest  drives  the  main  valve,  pre- 
venting what  is  known  to  engineers  as  a  "  dead  center."  The 
meaning  conveyed  by  this  expression  is  that  there  is  a  dead 
point  which  would  stop  and  prevent  the  operation  of  the  pump. 


FIG.  256. — Knowles  direct-acting  steam  pump. 

This  piston  driven  backward  and  forward  by  the  steam  carries 
with  it  the  main  valve,  which  in  turn  supplies  the  steam  to  the 
main  piston  operating  the  pump,  there  being  no  point  in  the 
stroke  at  which  either  of  the  pistons  is  not  open  to  direct  steam 
pressure. 

The  Marsh  Boiler  Feed  Pump,  Fig.  257,  is  the  style  used 
of  this  particular  make  for  low  pressure  as  with  a  heating  appa- 
ratus. It  is  essential  that  a  pump  employed  for  this  purpose  shall 
be  of  sufficient  size  to  allow  of  slow  running.  While  reducing  its 
pumping  capacity  this  is  best  for  low-pressure  work.  The  motion 


278     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


FIG.  257.— Marsh  boiler  feed  pump. 


FIG.  "258.— Blake  boiler  feed  pump. 


STEAM    APPLIANCES 


279 


is  less,  requiring  increased  difference  between  the  steam  and  water 
pistons. 

The  Blake  Pump  used  for  boiler  feed  purposes  in  connection 
with  a  heating  system  is  shown  by  Fig.  258.  It  has  large  direct 
water  passages,  conducive  to  the  reducing  of  water  friction  and 
its  operation  is  continuous  at  slow  speed. 

Vacuum  Pumps 

Certain  mechanical  work  such  as  sugar  making,  etc.,  demand 
a  "  dry  "  vacuum  pump.  For  vacuum  systems  of  heating  where 


FIG.  259. — Marsh  vacuum  pump. 


FIG.  260. — Knowles  vacuum  pump. 


the  water  of  condensation  and  the  air  are  handled  together,  the 
radiators    and    piping   act    as    a    condensing    system.      For    tlu's 


280     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

purpose  pumps  with  large  cylinders  must  be  employed  and  the 
valve  areas  must  be  sufficiently  large  to  insure  the  filling  of  the 
pump  cylinder.  It  is  customary  to  pump  the  water  and  air  to  a 
separating  tank  from  which  the  water,  at  a  high  temperature, 
is  delivered  to  the  boiler,  the  air  being  delivered  to  the  atmos- 
phere. Fig.  259  shows  the  Marsh  type  of  vacuum  pump  and 
Fig.  260  the  Knowles  Vacuum  Pump.  Each  of  these  types  has 
a  horizontal  stroke;  other  styles  have  a  vertical  stroke  and  one, 
two  or  more  cylinders. 

Pump  Governors  and  Regulators 

To  give  the  best  of  service  steam  pumps  should  be  operated 
automatically.  This  is  accomplished  by  a  pump  governor  or 
regulator  which  controls  the  steam  to  the  pump,  thereby  reducing 


Steam  from  Boiler 


FIG.  261. — Kieley  pump  governor. 

or  increasing  the  speed  of  the  pump,  according  to  the  amount  of 
condensation  to  be  handled.  On  heating  systems  the  establishing 
of  a  fixed  water  line,  as  may  be  accomplished  with  a  pump  gov- 
ernor, is  a  distinct  advantage  and  a  material  help  to  the  appa- 
ratus. 

There  are  two  general  types  of  pump  governors,  the  first 
operating  quite  similar  to  a  trap  with  a  bucket  or  float.  The 
Kieley  Pump  Governor,  Fig.  261,  has  a  ball  float  inside  the  cast- 
iron  chamber,  which  rises  and  falls  according  to  the  amount  of 
water  delivered  through  the  return  pipe.  This  float  connects 
with  an  arm  or  lever  outside  the  casting,  which  operates  the  steam 


STEAM    APPLIANCES 


281 


supply  valve  to  the  pump.  The  suction  pipe  to  pump  is  connected 
at  the  bottom  of  the  receiving  chamber  of  the  pump  governor. 

The  Blessing  Pump  Governor  operates  the  steam  valve  by  the 
rise  and  fall  of  an  iron  bucket  within  the  receiving  chamber  of  the 
governor,  the  general  principle  employed  being  quite  similar  to 
that  already  described. 

Quite  different  in  style  and  operation  are  the  pump  regulators 
of  the  Knowles,  Blake  and  Worthington  types.  These  consist  of 
a  cast-iron  receiver  placed  just  above  the  pump.  The  drips  or 
return  pipes  from  the  heating  apparatus  drain  by  gravity  into 


.Cold  Water 
Connection 


Discharge 


FIG.  262. — Knowles  pump  and  receiver. 

these  receivers.  In  the  interior  of  each  one  is  placed  a  float  and 
balance  valve.  The  return  water  enters  the  receiver  through  an 
opening  in  the  top  and  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  receiver.  When 
it  accumulates  in  sufficient  quantity  to  raise  the  float,  the  pump 
is  started,  which  immediately  takes  the  accumulation  from  the 
receiver  and  delivers  it  to  the  boiler.  When  the  float  falls  again 
the  steam  supply  to  the  pump  is  shut  off  and  the  pump  ceases  to 
work,  the  speed  of  it  being  regulated  entirely  by  the  amount  of 
water  entering  the  receiver.  Fig.  262  shows  the  arrangement  of  a 
pump,  receiver,  and  regulator  of  this  character. 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

Back-Pressure  Valves 

On  exhaust-heating  work  there  must  be  sufficient  pressure  to 
circulate  the  steam  to  all  portions  of  the  heating  surfaces.  The 
piping  supplying  the  exhaust  mains  of  the  heating  system  should 
be  plenty  large  in  area  in  order  to  avoid  an  increase  of  back  pres- 
sure on  the  engine.  As  has  heretofore  been  stated,  the  exhaust 
from  the  engine  is  intermittent,  the  pressure  on  the  exhaust  pipe 
being  greater  or  less,  varying  with  the  stroke  of  the  engine.  The 
heating  system,  acting  as  a  condensing  apparatus,  does  not  al- 
ways use  or  condense  all  of  the  exhaust  steam  and  there  must  es- 
sentially be  a  relief  provided.  This  is  accomplished  by  placing 
a  special  form  of  valve  on  the  exhaust  between  the  exhaust  opening 
from  the  engine  and  the  exhaust  head,  acting  as  a  check  on  the 


FIG.  263. — Back-pressure  valve. 

steam  in  its  forward  motion  toward  the  opening  to  the  atmosphere. 
At  the  same  time  it  provides  a  preventive  to  the  backward  motion 
of  the  steam.  When  the  excess  of  pressure  occurs  the  valve  opens 
and  relieves  the  pressure  through  the  exhaust  pipe  to  the  atmos- 
phere. It  is  virtually  an  adjustable  check  valve  with  a  lever  and 
weight  attachment  for  balancing  the  pressure.  The  unequal  pres- 
sure from  the  engine  causes  a  throbbing  or  vibration,  which  in 
many  of  the  back-pressure  valves  is  objectionable,  owing  to  the 
noise. 

While  there  are  many  excellent  makes  of  back-pressure  valves, 


STEAM    APPLIANCES  283 

practically  the  same  methods  of  operation  are  employed  in  each 
and  every  one,  and  for  this  reason  we  illustrate  but  the  one  type 
as  shown  by  Fig.  263. 

Pressure-Reducing  Valves 

When  live  steam  is  turned  into  the  piping  of  a  heating  system 
it  is  at  a  high  pressure,  the  same  varying  with  the  initial  pressure 
at  the  boiler.  Such  a  pressure  must  be  reduced  or  checked  before 
admission  to  the  heating  system.  In  order  to  accomplish  this 
many  styles  of  valves  are  used,  which  may  be  set  to  regulate  the 
pressure  to  any  amount  desired.  As  the  regulation  is  from  the 
low-pressure  side  of  the  valve,  the  reduced  pressure  remains  con- 
stant, regardless  of  its  fluctuation  on  the  high-pressure  side.  In 
heating  practice,  gate  valves  are  usually  placed  on  the  piping  on 
either  side  of  the  reducing-pressure  valve  in  order  that  the  steam 
may  be  cut  off  from  it  to  make  adjustment  or  repairs. 

Injectors 

An  injector  is  a  device  used  for  forcing  feed  water  into  a 
boiler  against  boiler  pressure,  that  is  to  say,  against  whatever  pres- 
sure may  be  carried  on  it.  There  are  two  distinct  types  of  injec- 
tors, positive  and  automatic.  The  injector  performs  two  offices. 
It  lifts  the  water  from  whatever  source  of  supply  is  provided  and 
it  also  tempers  it  and  delivers  it  into  the  boiler. 

The  positive  or  double-tube  injector  has  an  overflow  which 
closes  mechanically  and  has  two  sets  of  jets,  one  for  lifting  the 
water,  the  other  for  forcing  it  into  the  boiler. 

The  automatic  injector  has  an  overflow  which  opens  and  closes 
through  the  action  of  the  injector  itself  and,  as  a  usual  thing,  has 
but  one  set  of  jets. 

The  operation  of  the  injector  is  such  that  the  steam  at  boiler 
pressure  is  passed  into  a  vacuum  through  a  very  small  opening. 
As  this  jet  of  steam  strikes  the  water  it  is  quickly  condensed,  creat- 
ing a  velocity  or  forward  movement  of  the  water.  All  of  the  energy 
of  the  steam  is  imparted  to  the  water  warming  it  and  forcing  it 
into  the  boiler. 

Owing  to  these  features  the  range  of  the  injector  depends  upon 
the  temperature  of  the  feed  water,  it  having  a  greater  range,  lift 


284     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


and  pressure,  with  water  at  a  low  temperature.     The  best  results 
are  obtained  with  the  feed  water  at  from  60  to  100  degrees  Fahr.> 


FIG.  265.— U.  S.  injector 
(interior). 


FIG.  264.— U.  S.  injector. 


FIG.  266. — Method  of  connecting  injector. 

although  the  injector  will   satisfactorily  handle  water  at  a   tem- 
perature up  to  140  degrees. 


STEAM    APPLIANCES  285 

The  double-tube  injector  is  a  German  invention.  There  are 
several  styles  of  injectors,  one  of  which  we  illustrate  by  Fig.  264, 
showing  an  interior  view  of  the  same  by  Fig.  265. 

In  order  to  show  the  method  of  connecting  the  steam  supply, 
suction  pipe  and  delivery  to  boiler,  we  illustrate  one  method  of 
connection,  Fig.  266.  When  the  boiler  feed  water  is  supplied 
from  a  tank  above  the  boiler,  the  suction  pipe  should  be  connected 
as  shown  by  dotted  lines.  Gate  or  globe  valves  should  be  placed 
on  steam  supply  and  suction  pipes  and  a  check  valve  on  a  hori- 
zontal portion  of  the  boiler  feed  pipe.  The  nearer  the  boiler  and 
the  farther  from  the  injector  this  check  valve  is  located,  the  better. 
A  stopcock  should  be  placed  on  the  pipe  between  this  check  valve 
and  the  boiler. 

Inspirators 

This  is  a  type  of  injector  and  operates  along  the  same  lines 
as  the  injector  above  described.  That  used  for  feeding  boilers 
of  the  stationary  type,  as  used  for  heating  or  power,  is  shown 
by  Fig.  267  and  the  interior  mechanism  of  it  by  Fig.  268.  The 
name  "  inspirator  "  was  given  to  it  by  Mr.  John  Hancock  under 
conditions  as  follows: 

"  In  the  year  1868,  John  Hancock,  a  civil  engineer,  began  ex- 
periments having  in  view  the  entraining  of  air  and  compressing 
it  to  a  certain  extent,  to  be  used  as  a  blast  for  forges  and  fur- 
naces. These  experiments  led  to  the  exhausting  of  air  by  means 
of  a  jet  apparatus,  which  is  now  known  commercially  as  an  ejector. 
He  found  it  possible  by  this  method  to  create  a  vacuum  to  the 
extent  of  twenty-five  or  twenty-six  inches  mercury  column;  also 
that  water  could  be  lifted  from  a  depth  of  twenty-five  feet  and 
elevated  into  a  tank.  Later  he  found  that  he  could  make  a  jet 
apparatus  which  would,  with  its  own  steam  pressure,  force  water 
into  a  boiler  when  the  water  flowed  to  it  from  an  overhead  tank 
or  under  pressure.  This  type  of  apparatus  is  now  called  a  non- 
lifting  injector.  He  therefore  applied  these  two  methods,  using 
the  ejector  to  lift  the  water  from  a  well  and  deliver  it  into  a  tank 
located  above  the  injector.  The  water  then  flowed  to  the  injector 
and  was  forced  into  the  boiler.  This  combination  was  placed  in 
successful  operation  in  several  instances, 


286     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


"  Following  up  this  idea,  Mr.  Hancock  became  convinced  that 
the  tank  could  be  eliminated  and  the  ejector  or  lifting  apparatus 
be  attached  direct  to  the  injector  or  forcing  apparatus.  He  ac- 
complished this  arrangement  and  the  two  connected  were  emi- 
nently satisfactory  ;  in  fact,  much  more  so  than  the  first  arrange- 


5TEAM 


FIG.  267.  —  Hancock  inspirator. 


FIG.  268.  —  Interior  mechanism  of  Hancock 
inspirator. 


nient,  as  the  ejector  varied  its  quantity  of  water  as  the  steam 
pressure  varied,  which  was  just  what  the  injector  required  to  ob- 
tain a  good  working  range.  He  considered  this  idea  in  the  nature 
of  an  inspiration  and  thereupon  called  the  apparatus  the  Han- 
cock Inspirator." 


STEAM    APPLIANCES 


287 


Automatic  Water  Feeders 

Automatic  water  feeders,  or  devices  for  feeding  water  to  the 
boiler  in  order  to  maintain  a  certain  definite  water  line  in  the  same, 


FIG.  269. — Automatic  water  feeder — Xason  type. 

are  manufactured  in  a  great  variety  of  styles.  The  action  of  the 
valves  is  controlled  by  a  copper-ball  float,  the  water  raising  this 
float  until  the  normal  level  of  the  water 
line  has  been  reached,  when  the  valve 
to  the  water  supply  is  closed.  The 
pressure  of  the  water  supply  must  ex- 
ceed the  pressure  carried  on  the  boiler. 
The  Nason  type  of  boiler  feeder  is 
shown  by  Fig.  269.  The  Lawler  type 
of  water  feeder  is  shown  by  Fig.  270. 
As  will  be  noted  by  the  illustration, 
this  feeder  is  used  in  place  of  the  regu- 
lation water  column  and  is  provided 
with  a  water  gauge.  Water  feeders  are 
now  manufactured  which,  when  used 
on  heating  boilers,  not  only  keep  the 
boiler  supplied  to  its  normal  water  line, 
but  also  prevent  the  flooding  of  the 
boiler  by  reason  of  the  sudden  return 
to  the  boiler  of  any  water  of  condensa- 

tion    which    might    have    become    en-         FIG.  270.-Lawler  automatic 
trained  in   piping   or   radiators.  water  feeder. 


CHAPTER    XXIII 

District  Heating 

THIS  type,  if  it  may  be  so  termed,  of  steam  and  hot-water 
heating  owes  its  inception  to  an  eminent  engineer,  Mr.  Birdsall 
Holly,  of  Lockport,  N.  Y.,  who,  in  the  year  1877,  introduced 
the  system  of  underground  steam  distribution  which  bears  his 
name.  The  original  plant,  with  about  one  mile  of  underground 
mains,  was  installed  at  Lockport,  N.  Y.,  then  a  city  of  about 
20,000  inhabitants,  and  the  first  buildings  connected  with  and 
heated  by  the  same  were  five  stores,  seven  residences  and  two 
churches,  and  the  original  system,  with  extensions  and  improve- 
ments, is  now  in  operation. 

Mr.  Holly's  first  idea  in  the  construction  of  this  plant  was 
to  make  use  of  live  steam,  the  main  object  being  to  relieve  the 
users  from  the  necessity  of  the  care  and  attention  essential  where 
individual  heating  apparatus  was  used,  and  to  eliminate  the  dirt 
and  other  unpleasant  features  unavoidably  present  in  connection 
with  the  operation  of  a  heating  apparatus.  Mr.  Holly  reasoned 
that  those  persons  owning  and  operating  such  plants  would  pay 
well  to  be  freed  of  such  care  and  attention  and  the  trouble  oc- 
casioned by  the  purchasing  and  handling  of  fuel.  In  using  steam 
from  a  district  plant  there  would  also  be  a  freedom  from  the 
danger  of  fire  consequent  to  the  operation  of  a  heating  plant  within 
each  separate  building. 

That  the  inventor  reasoned  along  correct  lines  is  clearly  demon- 
strated by  the  fact  that  this  original  plant  has  been  added  to 
from  time  to  time  until  some  three  hundred  and  fifty  consumers 
are  customers  of  the  company  operating  it,  the  plant  at  the 
present  time  having  in  successful  operation  some  six  miles  of 
street  mains. 

Many  obstacles,  which  had  to  be  met  or  eliminated  altogether, 

288 


DISTRICT    HEATING  289 

were  encountered  in  the  operation  of  such  a  plant  and  years  of 
effort  and  experimenting  were  required  to  perfect  it. 

The  proper  insulation  of  the  pipes  to  prevent  loss  of  heat  by 
radiation  from  the  street  mains  and  service  connections,  the  con- 
struction of  devices  for  providing  for  expansion  and  contraction, 
anchorage,  etc.,  together  with  other  features  of  construction,  were 
tested  exhaustively  in  a  practical  manner,  with  the  result  that  the 
Holly  System  is  to-day  free  from  the  defects  prevalent  in  its 
original  form. 

The  fact  that  steam  can  be  manufactured  in  an  isolated  posi- 
tion, from  cheap  fuel  at  small  expense  and  delivered  without  any 
considerable  loss  in  temperature  through  ten  miles  or  more  of 
street  mains,  and  the  further  circumstance  that  special  devices 
regulate  and  register  the  amount  of  steam  used  by  each  consumer, 
all  these,  together  with  other  incident  conditions,  have  made  this 
class  of  heating  a  paying  investment  and  at  this  period  there  are 
hundreds  of  district  systems  in  successful  operation. 

The  early  methods  of  district  heating  were  such  that  the  water 
of  condensation  was  returned  to  the  central  station  through  a 
system  of  piping  separate  from  the  steam  mains.  This  has  now 
been  generally  abandoned  and  the  surplus  of  heat  available  in 
the  water  of  condensation  is  fed  through  a  trap  to  an  economizing 
coil  (made  usually  of  several  sections  of  indirect  radiation),  where 
the  remaining  heat  units  are  extracted  and  delivered  to  a  room 
above  through  a  register  in  the  same  manner  as  from  an  indirect 
radiator  on  an  ordinary  job  of  heating.  The  water  of  condensa- 
tion is  then  carried  to  a  special  condensation  meter,  where  it  is 
weighed  and  quantities  registered  and  is  finally  emptied  into  the 
sewer. 

The  system  of  piping  in  the  building  to  be  heated  may  be  of 
either  the  one-pipe  or  two-pipe  style,  and,  if  hot-water  heat  is  em- 
ployed, a  special  type  of  hot-water  heater  is  used,  through  which 
the  steam  passes  in  much  the  same  manner  as  through  a  feed-water 
heater.  In  this  event  steam  rather  than  coal  or  other  fuel,  is  used 
to  heat  the  water.  Probably  the  best  adaptation  of  district  steam 
heating  is  by  the  method  of  piping  known  as  the  "  Atmospheric 
System."  The  hot-water  type  of  radiator  is  used  and  the  steam 
is  supplied  to  each  radiator  at  the  top  of  one  end  through  a 


290     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

special  form  of  valve  with  small  ports  or  openings  in  the  seat. 
Thus  a  valve  may  be  opened  one,  two,  three  or  four  ports,  supply- 
ing a  greater  or  lesser  amount  of  heat  to  a  radiator,  or  such  an 
amount  as  may  be  required  to  maintain  a  uniform  temperature 
within  the  room  to  be  heated.  This  system  is  operated  under  a 
few  ounces  of  pressure  above  that  of  the  atmosphere  and  such 
heat  units  as  are  contained  in  the  steam  or  water  are  extracted 
before  the  water  of  condensation  enters  the  returns. 

A  finely  adjusted  regulating  pressure  valve  is  used  on  the 
supply  from  the  street  main  and  as  the  condensation  is  metered 
and  weighed  the  consumer  pays  only  for  such  heat  as  he  has  used. 

As  stated  before,  the. first  idea  of  central-station  heating  was 
that  of  the  production  and  sale  of  live  steam.  At  the  present  time 
this  class  of  enterprise  has  found  favor  with  the  management  of 
large  electric  lighting  and  railway  plants,  as  it  gives  an  oppor- 
tunity to  increase  their  revenues  by  providing  a  profitable  method 
for  disposing  of  their  exhaust  steam. 

There  are  several  systems  of  central-station  steam  heating  now 
in  use.  The  different  systems  vary  somewhat  in  the  manner  of 
constructing  the  piping  or  underground  mains  and  also  in  the 
method  of  handling  the  steam  supply  after  it  has  been  introduced 
to  the  building  to  be  heated.  We  would  divide  the  methods  of 
central-station  or  district  steam  heating  into  two  classes,  the  first, 
where  the  steam  is  manufactured  only  for  the  purpose  of  heating; 
the  second,  where  the  steam  generated  is  used  for  power  and  the 
"  by-product,"  if  so  it  may  be  termed,  is  used  for  heating  pur- 
poses. It  is  the  latter  method  wrhich  is  more  generally  used,  and 
a  wonderful  saving  is  effected  by  the  company  which  disposes  of 
their  exhaust  in  this  manner.  It  is  customary  to  divide  the  boiler 
power  of  each  station  into  units  of  150  or  200  H.  P.  each.  A 
one-thousand  H.  P.  plant  would  have  five  200  H.  P.  boilers,  one 
of  them  held  in  reserve,  the  other  four  in  daily  operation.  It 
has  been  shown  that  after  allowing  this  one-fifth,  or  20^,  boiler 
reserve,  a  further  allowance  of  15^  for  heating  feed  water  and  a 
5^  loss  for  leakage  and  deterioration  from  condensation,  each  of 
the  1,000  H.  P.  capacity  of  the  plant  can  supply  80  sq.  ft.  of 
radiation  with  the  necessary  units  of  heat,  or  80,000  sq.  ft.  of 
ordinary  cast-iron  radiation.  During  periods  of  intense  cold 


DISTRICT    HEATING 


291 


weather  the  reserve  boiler  may  be  employed  to  prevent  overwork 
on  the  part  of  those  in  regular  use. 

It  is  worth  noting  that  in  many  instances  the  revenue  from 
the  steam  sold  for  heating  has  been  sufficient  to  pay  the  fuel  bill 
for  the  entire  plant  for  the  full  twelve  months  of  the  year. 

Central-Station  Hot- Water  Heating 

Heating  by  hot  water  supplied  from  a  central  station  has 
during  the  past  ten  years  resulted  in  the  installation  of  over  one 
hundred  plants  of  this  nature.  While  the  process  of  heating  sev- 
eral buildings  from  a  single  plant  is  not  new,  it  having  been  more 
or  less  used  for  fifty  years  or  more,  the  improvements  in  methods 
of  installation  and  control  have  advanced  materially  during  the 
last  decade.  The  systems  of  Evans-Almiral  Company,  H.  T.  Yar- 
yan  and  also  Schott's  balanced  column  system  have  been  largely 
used  and  to-day  there  are  over  one  hundred  of  them  in  operation. 

This  work  includes  some  features  which  will  prove  of  interest 
to  the  fitter.  The  matter  of  estimating  the  amount  of  radiation 
required  to  heat  a  building  depends  upon  the  system  employed 
and  the  manner  of  operating  the  plant.  Some  systems  deliver 
water  at  140°  at  freezing  and  raise  or  lower  the  temperature  one 
degree  for  each  degree  of  variation  of  the  outside  temperature. 
Provided  the  service  or  street  mains  are  large  and  there  is  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  radiation  installed,  this  plan  works  out  nicely. 
We  would  prefer  seeing  the  water  at  155°  or  160°  at  freezing 
and  then  vary  the  temperature  according  to  the  weather. 

TABLE  XXVI 


Outside  Temperature. 

Water  Temperature. 

60° 

120° 

50° 

140° 

40° 

150° 

30° 

160° 

An  estimated  loss 

20° 

180° 

of  3°  in  tempera- 

10° 

190° 

ture  for  each  mile 

Zero 

200° 

delivered. 

-10° 

210° 

-20° 

220° 

-  30°                                              230° 

292     PRACTICAL    HEATING   AND    VENTILATION 

In  estimating  radiation  one  square  foot  of  radiating  surface 
for  each  square  foot  of  glass  surface  and  its  equivalent  in  exposed 
wall  and  cubical  contents  will,  as  a  rule,  prove  a  sufficient  ratio  in 
figuring  work.  Schott  advises  a  schedule  of  temperatures,  as 
shown  on  page  291. 

As  to  which  system  is  preferable — steam  or  hot  water — it 
would  be  a  hard  matter  to  decide,  as  each  one  seems  to  have  par- 
ticular and  individual  advantages  peculiar  to  itself  and  not  pos- 
sessed by  the  other. 


CHAPTER    XXIV 

Pipe  and  Boiler  Covering 

THE  insulating  of  exposed  boiler  or  heater  surfaces  and  pipe 
for  conveying  hot  air,  steam  or  hot  water  and  the  value  of  so 
doing  are  matters  which  ofttimes  do  not  receive  proper  attention 
from  the  steam  fitter  or  heating  contractor.  Many  steam  fitters 
doing  work  in  a  small  way,  installing  but  few  jobs  in  the  course 
of  a  season,  look  upon  the  subject  of  covering  as  an  increased 
expenditure  for  material  which,  added  to  the  cost  of  the  work,  is 
apt  to  destroy  all  their  chances  for  securing  the  contracts  for 
the  jobs,  and  this  especially  if  competition  be  close.  An  argu- 
ment of  this  kind  is  wrong  in  its  entirety,  and  steam  fitters  gen- 
erally who  are  contracting  for  heating  work  should  understand 
the  benefits  accruing  from  thoroughly  covering  the  boiler  and 
such  exposed  piping  as  is  not  used  for  radiating  surface,  and 
should  become  so  familiar  with  the  subject  and  so  versed  in  its 
application  that  the  owner  may  be  enlightened  as  to  the  saving 
effected  and  thus  be  made  to  feel  willing  to  pay  whatever  sum 
may  be  necessary  for  the  work. 

Just  as  heat  is  conveyed  by  three  distinct  methods,  viz.,  by 
radiation,  by  conduction  and  by  convection,  as  explained  in 
Chapter  II,  just  so  is  heat  lost  or  dissipated  from  the  bare  sur- 
faces of  boilers,  heaters  and  piping  for  conveying  steam  or  hot 
water.  What  this  loss  is  has  been  quite  accurately  determined 
by  various  authorities. 

One  authority  states  that  a  square  foot  of  uncovered  pipe, 
filled  with  steam  at  100  Ibs.  pressure,  will  radiate  and  dissipate 
in  a  year  the  heat  put  into  3,716  pounds  of  steam  by  the  economic 
combustion  of  398  pounds  of  coal:  thus  10  square  feet  of  bare 
steam  pipe  (steam  at  100  Ibs.  pressure)  corresponds  approximately 

to  the  waste  or  loss  of  two  tons  of  coal  per  annum. 

293 


294     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


Some  tests  reported  in  Volume  XXIII  of  the  proceedings  of 
the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  (tests  made  in 
1901)  show  that  on  100  lineal  feet  of  2-inch  pipe,  carrying  steam 
at  80  Ibs.  pressure,  tests  based  on  300  working  days  of  10  hours 
each,  with  temperature  of  room  about  65°  Fahr.,  a  very  ma- 
terial saving  was  effected.  The  following  table  shows  the  results 
of  the  test : 

TABLE  XXVII 


Net  Tons 

Name  of  Pipe 
Covering. 

Condensa- 
tion per 
Hour  Lbs. 

Net  Tons 
of  Coal 
consumed 
per  Year. 

of  Coal 
saved  per 
Year  by 
use  of 

Cost  of 
Coal  per 
Net  Ton. 

Net  Saving  in 
Cost  of  Coal  per 
Annum  by  use  of 
Covering. 

Approxi- 
mate Cost 
of  Cover- 
ings. 

Covering. 

Bare  Pipe  

59.16 

7.76 

$4.00 

$31.04  loss 

Asbestocel  

13.47 

1.83 

5.93 

4.00 

23  .  72  saving 

$16.20 

Asbetos  Molded 

14.35 

1.9G 

5.80 

4.00 

23.20     " 

15.95 

Air  Cell  

14.60 

1.99 

5.77 

4.00 

23  .  08     " 

15  90 

When  we  consider  that  there  are  about  64  square  feet  of  heat- 
ing surface  in  100  lineal  feet  of  2"  pipe,  the  annual  saving  amounts 
practically  to  35  cents  per  square  foot,  which  will  pay  the  entire 
cost  of  the  covering,  leaving  the  saving  of  future  years  as  a 
clear  profit  on  the  investment.  While  the  above  tests  were  made 
at  a  comparatively  high  pressure,  with  1  Ib.  of  coal  evaporating 
about  11  Ibs.  of  water,  the  same  proportionate  showing  may  be 
made  with  steam  at  one  or  two  Ibs.  pressure  or  on  hot-water 
piping  where  the  temperature  of  water  averages  160  degrees. 
Stated  in  a  different  manner,  the  saving  effected  by  the  use  of 
covering  on  low-pressure  steam  or  hot-water  work  averages  from 
10$  to  30$  of  the  entire  yearly  expense  for  fuel,  dependent  on 
the  character  and  quality  of  the  covering  used. 

Asbestos,  magnesia,  mineral  wool,  cork,  wood  and  felt  paper 
are  the  materials  principally  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  pipe 
covering,  although  for  underground  piping,  ashes,  charcoal  and 
sawdust  have  been  used. 

The  thermal  conductivity  of  the  material  used  governs  the  ef- 
fective character  of  a  covering  applied  to  prevent  loss  of  heat, 
the  efficiency  of  asbestos,  magnesia,  hair  felt  or  cork  being  greater 
than  all  other  materials  in  this  respect. 


PIPE    AND    BOILER    COVERING 


295 


Asbestos  is  a  fibrous  rock,  Fig.  271,  found  in  many  parts 
of  the  world.  It  lies  in  thin  strata  or  layers  and,  when  broken, 
separates  in  long  silky  fibers,  which  may  be  spun  into  threads 


FIG.  271. — Asbestos  rock. 

or  woven  into  wicking  or  sheets.  This  material  is  not  only  fire- 
proof, but  acid-proof  as  well  and  serves  as  an  insulation  for 
electric  currents. 

Cork,  as  used  for  covering,  is  ground  or  granulated  and  then 
pressed  into  the  desired  shape.     In  places  where  the  covering  is 


m 


FIG.  2T-2. — Method  of  fastening  sectional  pipe  covering. 

affected  by  dampness  or  water,  cork  covering  is,  no  doubt,  su- 
perior to  all  others  on  account  of  its  non-absorbent  and  odorless 
qualities. 

Pressed  cork,  magnesia,  asbestos  and,  in  fact,  all  coverings  of 


296     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


this  nature  are  manufactured  in  three-foot  lengths  and  split 
lengthwise  for  easy  adjustment  on  the  piping.  The  different 
varieties  have  an  outer  covering  of  muslin  or  light  canvas,  glued 
or  pasted  on  them,  to  give  a  finish.  Covering  is  secured  to  the 
pipe  by  japanned  tin  or  brass  bands,  as  shown  by  Fig.  272. 

Air  when  confined  within  a  space  to  prevent  circulation  is  a 
non-conductor  of  heat  and  provides  good  insulation.  A  cover- 
ing which  has  met  with  much  favor  for  low-pressure  work  and 


FIG.  273. — Asbestos  air-cell  pipe  covering. 

for  hot-water  piping  is  known  as  the  "  air-cell  "  covering.  It  is 
made  of  corrugated  asbestos  paper  of  various  thicknesses.  A  cross 
section  of  this  covering  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  273. 

As  a  rule,  on  ordinary  heating  work,  the  exposed  boiler  and 
heater  surfaces  and  the  pipe  fittings  are  covered  with  a  magnesia- 
asbestos  plastic  cement,  mixed  with  water  to  the  desired  consist- 
ency and  applied  with  a  trowel.  However,  molded  fittings  may 
be  obtained  for  use  with  all  sectional  covering.  See  Fig.  274. 
These  are  secured  to  the  fittings  by  bands  of  tin  or  brass,  as  shown 
by  illustration. 

For  underground  piping  or  for  steam  pipes  run  in  the  open 
there  is  probably  no  better  type  of  covering  than  the  Wyckoff 
wood  covering,  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  275.  It  is  constructed  of 


PIPE    AND    BOILER    COVERING 


297 


eight  thoroughly  seasoned  white  pine  staves,  one  inch  thick, 
closely  jointed  together  and  wound  with  heavy  galvanized  steel 
wire,  as  shown  by  the  illustration.  It  is  then  wrapped  with  two 


FIG.  274.— Molded  fittings. 

layers  of  heavy  corrugated  paper  and  again  surrounded  by  a  pine 
wood  casing  one  inch  in  thickness,  jointed  and  wire  wound  as 
before.  When  used  underground,  the  exterior  of  the  covering  is 


FIG.  275. — Wyckoff  wood  covering. 

completely  coated  with  asphaltum  pitch.  A  covering  of  this  kind 
for  such  service  will  undoubtedly  outlast  all  others  and  is  thor- 
oughly effective  as  an  insulator. 

There  are  now  so  many  different  varieties  and  grades  of  cov- 
erings on  the  market  that  it  would  be  next  to  impossible  to  illus- 


298     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

trate  and  describe  them,  nor  can  we  discuss  the  merits  of  the  vari- 
ous makes.  It  is  sufficient  to  state  that  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
thickness  and  texture  of  clothing  retain  the  heat  'of  the  human 
body  so  does  insulation  retain  the  heat  within  the  steam  or  hot- 
water  heating  system,  the  quality  of  the  covering  governing 
the  amount  of  heat  retained  and  the  saving  made. 


CHAPTER    XXV 

Temperature  Regulation  and  Heat  Control 

AUTOMATIC  government  of  pressures  and  temperatures  is  one 
of  the  most  important  adjuncts  to  an  artificial  heating  apparatus. 
We  have  shown  in  Chapter  IV  by  illustration  Fig.  35,  a  simple 
automatic  'steam  damper  regulator  for  regulating  steam  pres- 
sures, and  by  Figs.  36,  37  and  38,  the  application  of  it  to  the 
draught  and  check  damper  doors  of  a  steam  boiler. 

For  the  draught  regulation  of  a  high-pressure  boiler,  the 
damper  regulator  is  heavier  and  more  powerful,  the  rubber  dia- 
phragm larger  and  the  lever  longer.  A  better  regulator  is  one  in 
which  a  compound  lever  is  employed.  A  very  slight  movement  of 
the  rubber  and  the  plunger  resting  against  it  will  give  a  movement 
of  from  four  to  eight  inches  at  the  end  of  the  lever  where  the 
chain  to  draught  door  is  connected.  In  this  style  of  regulator  the 
rubber  diaphragm  is  less  apt  to  get  strained  or  broken. 

Probably  the  best  high-pressure  damper  regulator  is  one 
where  a  piston  working  in  a  cylinder  is  used,  the  piston  being 
operated  by  water  pressure.  The  employment  of  a  compound 
lever  on  this  type  of  regulator  makes  it  extremely  sensitive  and 
will  successfully  operate  the  dampers  at  less  than  one-pound  pres- 
sure. The  Lock  and  Climax  Regulators  are  of  this  character, 
that  illustrated  by  Fig.  276  being  the  Imperial  Climax. 

The  successful  and  economical  working  of  a  steam  boiler, 
either  high  or  low  pressure,  depends  largely  upon  the  methods 
employed  in  regulating  the  pressure  by  means  of  the  draught  and 
check  damper  doors.  All  methods  formerly  applied  depended 
upon  the  power  furnished  by  the  boiler  itself.  During  the  last 
-twenty  years  such  rapid  strides  have  been  made  in  temperature 
regulation  that  we  now  have  regulators  for  controlling  tempera- 
tures of  air,  water  and  steam,  as  well  as  other  liquids  and  gases, 
and  it  would  require  a  volume  to  adequately  describe,  illustrate 


300     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

and  comment  upon  the  various  makes  of  regulators.  We  shall, 
therefore,  select  some  regulators  and  systems  representative  of 
the  various  styles  in  use,  and  endeavor  to  give  the  reader  an  idea 
of  the  scope  and  character  of  this  important  industry. 

The  automatic  temperature  regulator  consists  of  three  parts : 
(a)   The  thermostat,  which  by  reason  of  the  changes  in  the 


FIG.  276. — Climax  high-pressure  regulator. 

temperatures   of  the   room,   furnishes   the  primary   motor   power 
for  operating  the  damper-controlling  device. 

(b)  The  means   of  transmitting  this   energy  to  the  damper- 
controlling  mechanism. 

(c)  The  damper-controlling  mechanism,  or  device  for  open- 
ing or  closing  the  dampers. 

The  thermostat  is  placed  within  the  room  or  at  a  point  where 
the  temperature  is  to  be  controlled.     This  is  the  primary  motor 


TEMPERATURE    REGULATION 


301 


operating  the  apparatus  by  means  of  certain  mechanism  employed 
for  opening  and  closing  the  draught  doors,  check  draught  doors 
or  dampers. 

The  Powers  Thermostat,  Fig.  277,  operates  on  the  vapor  prin- 
ciple.    This  disc  is  composed  of  two  metal  plates   spun  in  cor- 


FIG.  277. — The  Powers'  thermostat. 


rugations  to  give  flexibility.  Fastened  together  at  the  outside 
edges  these  plates  form  a  hollow  disc.  A  volatile  liquid  is  placed 
within  the  disc.  This  liquid  will  boil  and  vaporize  at  a  tem- 
perature below  that  of  the  water  in  the  apparatus,  or  at  a  tem- 


FJG.  "278. — Regulator  for  hot-water 
heater  or  furnace. 


FIG.  279. — Regulator  for  low-pressure 
steam  boiler. 


perature  of  50  degrees  Fahr.,  generating  a  pressure  which  ex- 
pands the  disc.  At  a  temperature  of  70  degrees  a  pressure  of 
about  six  pounds  to  the  square  inch  is  exerted  and  this  amount  of 
pressure  is  sufficient  to  operate  the  valves  controlling  the  com- 
pressed air. 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

For  the  regulation  of  the  ordinary  house-heating  apparatus, 
this  regulator  is  made  in  three  styles,  the  same  disc  as  shown  by 
Fig.  277  furnishing  the  primary  motor  power : 

(a)  which  controls  the  temperature  of  the  rooms  by  operat- 
ing the  draught  and  check  doors  of  the  hot-water  heater  or  hot- 
air  furnace  by  a  diaphragm  motor  as   shown  by  Fig.  278 ; 

(b)  which  controls  the  draught  and  check  doors   of  a  low- 
pressure  steam  heater  by  a  diaphragm  motor  of  double  construc- 
tion, as   shown  by  Fig.   279,  which  also  takes  the  place  of  the 
ordinary   pressure    diaphragm    regulator   usually   furnished    with 
steam  boilers; 

(c)  which  regulates  the  temperature  of  the  room  by  regu- 
lating the  temperature    of   the   water   in   a   hot-water  heater   by 
means  of  a  generator  in  connection  with  the  diaphragm  motor — 


FIG.  280. — Hot-water  regulator. 

Fig.  280.     This  generator  is  attached  directly  to  the  heater  and 
one  of  the  flow  pipes  from  the  heater  is  connected  to  it. 

The  diaphragm  motor  consists  of  two  castings,  slightly  oval, 
bolted  together,  with  an  elastic  material  between.  The  reverse 
action  of  the  plunger  is  accelerated  by  a  steel  spring  placed  around 
the  plunger  under  the  lever  connection.  The  generator  is  a  hol- 
low casting  having  a  double  shell  or  wall.  The  inner  chamber 
is  filled  with  cold  water.  The  hot  water  passing  from  the  heater 
into  the  flow  pipe  flows  through  the  space  between  the  inner  and 
outer  shells  of  the  generator,  thus  surrounding  the  chamber  into 
which  the  cold  water  has  been  placed.  As  the  water  in  this  inner 
chamber  is  under  less  pressure  than  that  in  the  heater,  it  will 


TEMPERATURE    REGULATION 


boil  quicker,  producing  a  pressure  which  is  exerted  against  the 
under  side  of  the  diaphragm  through  a  pipe  connected  directly 
to  it.  This  pressure  is  sufficient  to  operate  the  dampers  of  the 
heater  and  prevent  the  boiling  of  the  water  in  the  system. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  best  results  from  a  regulator  of  this 
kind,  it  is  essential  that  very  light  or  counterbalanced  check  and 


FIG.  281. — Counterbalanced  check 
door. 


FIG.  282. — Counterbalanced  draught 
door. 


draught  doors  be  used.  Fig.  281  shows  a  very  good  style  of  check 
damper  and  Fig.  282  an  excellent  draught  damper.  The  exertion 
of  a  very  slight  force  will  open  or  close  either  of  these  doors. 

The  Powers  System  of  controlling  the  temperature  of  a  large 
building   provides    for  the    control   of   the   valves    admitting   the 


FIG.  283. — Powers'  diaphragm 
radiator  valve. 


FIG.  284.— Thermostat  for  control- 
ling  radiator  valve. 


steam,  or  regulating  the  flow  of  hot  water  to  the  radiators.  We 
know  that  an  occupant  of  a  room,  by  watching  the  thermometer 
and  attending  constantly  to  the  operation  of  the  radiator  valves, 


304     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

may  control  the  temperature  of  the  room  in  a  very  satisfactory 
manner.  The  Powers  System  accomplishes  this  work  automati- 
cally by  means  of  diaphragm  radiator  valves,  Fig.  283,  wrhich 
are  placed  on  all  radiators  and  operated  by  compressed  air 
regulated  by  a  thermostat,  which  is  placed  in  each  room  and  may 
be  adjusted  with  a  key  to  operate  the  valves  at  any  temperature 
from  60°  to  80°  Fahr.  This  thermostat  is  shown  by  Fig.  284, 
without  the  cover.  The  cover  is  composed  of  metal,  plated  to 
correspond  with  the  decoration  of  the  room,  and  has  a  tested 
thermometer  attached  to  its  face. 

For  controlling  the  mixing  dampers  of  a  blower  system  of 
heating,  or  the  by-pass  dampers  of  the  air  supply,  the  same  type 
of  thermostat  as  that  already  described  is  used,  the  dampers  being 
operated  by  a  diaphragm  motor,  Fig.  285. 

Compressed-air  pipes  lead  from  the  storage  tank  to  each  of 
the  thermostats  and  from  the  thermostat  to  each  motor.  The 
variation  of  temperature  at  the  thermostat  causes  it  to  operate 


FIG.  285. — Powers'  diaphragm  motor. 

as  the  primary  force  for  releasing  or  retaining  the  air  pressure 
upon  the  motor.  With  the  air  pressure  removed  the  springs  of 
the  motor  operate  the  dampers  in  a  motion  opposite  to  that  ef- 
fected by  the  compressed  air.  Possibly  a  clearer  conception  of 
this  arrangement  may  be  had  from  Fig.  286,  which  shows  an 
elevation  of  a  fan  apparatus  as  used  in  a  school  building.  "  A  " 
shows  the  location  of  the  thermostats  in  the  school  rooms ;  "  B  " 
the  motor ;  "  C  "  the  mixing  dampers  controlled  by  them. 

"  D  "  shows  the  location  of  the  thermostat  for  controlling  the 
temperature  of  the  tempered  air  before  admission  to  the  fan ;  "  E  " 
the  motor  which  operates  this  damper. 


TEMPERATURE    REGULATION 


305 


"  F  "  shows  the  reservoir  or  storage  tank  for  the  compressed 
air.     A  pressure  of  air  at  fifteen  pounds  is  automatically  main- 


tained in   this  tank.      The    air   compressor   may   be   operated  by 
steam,  electric  or  hydraulic  pressure. 


306     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

The  operation  of  the  National  Regulator  for  the  above  class 
of  work  is  quite  similar  to  that  already  described. 

For  control  of  a  direct-heating  apparatus  a  diaphragm  valve 
is  used  on  the  radiators,  and  for  a  fan  system  a  diaphragm  or 
damper  motor  is  used  and  compressed  air  is  employed  to  operate 
each -of  these. 


FIG.  287. — National  regulator  thermostat. 


FIG.  288. — National  regulator  ther- 
mostat interior  mechanism. 


The  thermostat,  however,  is  entirely  different  from  all  others, 
a  vulcanized  rubber  tube  being  the  element  made  use  of  in  con- 
trolling the  compressed-air  force  which  operates  the  system.  Fig. 
287  shows  the  thermostat  and  the  ornamental  thermometer  used 
in  connection  with  it.  Contained  within  the  rubber  tube  are  the 
air  valve  and  the  valves  for  operating  the  compressed  air.  Vul- 
canized rubber  is  very  sensitive  to  changes  of  temperature,  ex- 
panding or  contracting  instantly  with  the  varying  temperatures 


TEMPERATURE    REGULATION 


307 


of  the  room,  and  when  such  expansion  or  contraction  occurs  it 
results  in  the  opening  or  closing  of  the  compressed  air  valves. 

The  interior  of  this  thermostat  is  shown  by  Fig.  288.  Two 
air  pipes  are  used,  one  from  the  air  reservoir  to  the  thermostat 
and  the  other  from  the  thermostat  to  the  valve  or  motor. 

The  expansion  or  lengthening,  or  the  contraction  or  shorten- 
ing of  the  rubber  tube  A  raises  or  sets  the  point  of  the  rod 
K  upon  the  seat  M,  opening  or  closing  the  valves  of  the  air 
supply. 

For  the  regulation  of  the  temperature  of  water  in  storage 
tanks  we  show  the  D.  &  R.  (Davis  &  Roesch)  regulator.  Fig. 


FIG.  289.— D.   &  R.  tank  regulator. 

289  shows  the  application  of  it  to  a  tank  heated  by  a  steam  coil. 
The  motor  employed  is  a  diaphragm  valve,  using  the  rubber  dia- 
phragm against  which  water  or  air  pressure  is  exerted  to  close 
the  valve,  a  spring  on  the  stem  of  the  under  side  of  the  valve 
holding  it  open  until  the  pressure  upon  the  diaphragm  is  suffi- 
cient to  close  it.  The  primary  motive  power  is  obtained  from 
a  regulator  with  an  expansion  post  or  plug  screwed  into  an 


308     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


opening  of  the  tank  and  extending  into  the  same,  as  shown  on 
the  illustration.  The  mechanism  is  such  that  the  expansion  of 
the  post  pushes  a  spring  which  opens  a  valve,  allowing  the  pres- 
sure of  the  water  supply,  or  compressed  air,  to  close  the  diaphragm 
valve  by  exerting  a  pressure  upon  the  diaphragm.  When  the 
temperature  of  the  water  cools  sufficiently  to  allow  the  post  within 
the  regulator  to  contract,  this  pressure  is  removed,  the  diaphragm 
valve  opening  by  the  spring,  and  steam  is  allowed  to  enter  the 
heating  coil. 

In  a  slightly  different  form  this  regulator  is  made  to  use  on 
tanks  supplied  directly  from  a  hot-water  heater  and  adapted  for 


FIG.  290.— The  Howard 
thermostat. 


FIG.  291. — Motor  for  Howard  thermostat. 


domestic  hot-water  supply,  pasteurizing  or  sterilizing,  and  is  also 
employed  for  directly  controlling  the  draught  and  check  dampers 
of  a  hot-water  heater. 

It  is  best  known  as  a  device  to  prevent  the  overheating  of 
water  in  a  storage-tank  supply  system. 

Of  the  regulators  operated  by  expansion  we  show  the  Howard 
and  the  Minneapolis  as  representing  two  distinct  types.  Each  of 
these  regulators  makes  use  of  a  motor  having  a  strong  spring 
mechanism  which  furnishes  power  to  operate  the  dampers. 

The  Howard  thermostat  is  composed  of  a  sensitive  plate,  tri- 


TEMPERATURE    REGULATION 


309 


angular  in  form,  as  shown  by  Fig.  290,  attached  to  the  side  wall 
of  the  room.  As  the  temperature  rises,  the  plate  curves  or  warps 
toward  the  wall.  A  wire  and  chain  connection  concealed  within 
the  partition  leads  from  the  top  of  the  plate,  over  frictionless 
pulleys,  to  a  weight  within  the  motor  box.  The  relaxing  of  this 
wire  and  chain  allows  the  weight  to  drop  sufficiently  to  release  the 
motor,  which  makes  one  half  turn  of  the  crank  arbor,  when  it  stops 
automatically.  The  crank  connecting  with  chain  to  the  check 
damper,  points  down,  holding  the  check  damper  door  open ;  the 
crank  connecting  with  the  draught  door,  points  up,  slacking  the 


FIG.  292. — Method  of  attaching  Howard  thermostat. 

chain  connection  to  the  draught  door,  which  closes  by  its  own 
weight,  or,  if  this  be  insufficient,  by  a  weight  attached  to  the  bot- 
tom of  it.  As  the  temperature  of  the  room  cools  below  the  degree 
of  heat  desired,  this  action  is  reversed,  the  check  door  being 
closed  and  the  draught  door  opened.  This  is  better  illustrated 
by  Fig.  291  which  shows  the  mechanism  of  the  motor,  a  thermo- 
static  plate  being  attached  to  show  the  operation  of  the  weight 
due  to  the  curving  of  the  plate. 

The  operation  of  the  motor  and  the  method  of  attaching  the 
chains  to  draught  and  check  doors  are  clearly  illustrated  by  Fig. 

.     The  spring  of  the  motor  is  occasionally  wound  with  a  key. 


310     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


The  motor  of  the  Minneapolis  regulator  and  the  method  of 
attaching  the  chain  connections  to  the  draught  and  check  doors  are 
quite  similar  to  that  already  described.  Otherwise  the  regulator 
consists  of  a  thermostat  and  two  cells  of  open  circuit  battery. 
The  thermostat,  Fig.  293,  is  operated  by  the  expansion  and  con- 
traction of  a  curved  metal  blade,  imparting  a  side  motion  to  a 
suspended  arm,  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  294,  which  shows  the  ther- 
mostat with  the  screen  removed.  The  wires  from  the  battery  are 
connected  to  the  two  posts  shown  just  above  the  indicator  of  the 


FIG.  293.— Minneapolis 
thermostat. 


FIG.  294.— Interior  of  Min- 
neapolis thermostat. 


thermostat.  Needle-pointed  adjustable  set  screws  pass  through 
these  posts,  the  pendant  blade  hanging  between  them.  As  the 
temperature  of  the  room  rises,  the  side  motion  of  the  pendant 
moves  it  against  the  point  of  one  set  screw,  forming  a  contact, 
which  closes  the  electric  circuit.  As  the  circuit  is  closed  an 
electric  current  flows  through  the  magnets  of  the  motor,  releas- 
ing the  brake,  and  the  driving  shaft  of  the  motor  makes  a  half 
revolution.  As  the  temperature  of  the  room  lowers,  the  project- 
ing arm  or  pendant  is,  by  contraction  of  the  circular  blade, 


TEMPERATURE    REGULATION 


311 


thrown  against  the  opposite  pin,  when  the  operation  above  de- 
scribed is  reversed.  The  releasing  feature  of  the  motor  consists 
of  a  pair  of  magnets,  which  become  energized  and  attract  an 
armature.  The  movement  of  the  armature  releases  the  motor, 
and  when  it  starts,  the  armature  is  secured  until  the  driving  shaft 
of  the  motor  makes  a  half  revolution,  when  it  resumes  its  normal 
position. 

Temperature  controlling  devices  of  the  Howard  and  Min- 
neapolis types  are  best  adapted  for  operating  the  dampers  of 
the  boiler  or  heater  of  a  low-pressure  heating  apparatus. 

The  Lawler  thermostatic  regulator  shown  by  Fig.  295  is  of 
another  type.  The  expansion  of  the  metal  used  is  multiplied  by  a 


FIG.  295. — The  Lawler  thermostat. 

series  of  levers  to  a  range  or  force  sufficient  to  operate  the  dam- 
pers of  a  steam  or  hot-water  heating  apparatus.  It  is  also  used, 
with  a  slight  variation  of  the  adjustment  of  the  levers,  to  control 
the  temperature  of  water  in  a  storage  tank  for  domestic  or  other 
use,  the  mixing  of  water  to  a  certain  temperature  for  baths,  or 
for  the  controlling  of  the  air  supply  of  an  indirect  heating 
system. 

The  Johnson  System  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  systems  of 
automatic  control  of  temperatures.  The  motive  force  employed 
is  compressed  air,  which  is  supplied  by  an  automatic  air  com- 
pressor and  stored  in  a  tank.  For  ordinary  service  a  hydraulic 


312     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

air  compressor,  Fig.  296,  is  used.  This  is  connected  to  the  water 
supply  to  the  building  and  to  some  convenient  waste  pipe.  It  is 
noiseless  in  operation  and  automatically  keeps  up  a  pressure  of 


FIG.  297. — Johnson 
thermostat. 


FIG.  298. — Mechanism  of 
Johnson  thermostat. 


FIG.  296.  — Johnson  hy- 
draulic air  compressor. 

from  ten  to  fifteen  pounds.     Compressors  are  also  furnished  which 
operate  by  electric  power  and  by  steam. 

A  thermostat  is  placed  on  the  wall  of  each  room  in  which  the 
heat  is  to  be  regulated.  The  external  appearance  of  this  thermo- 
stat is  shown  by  Fig.  297 ;  the  interior  mechanism  is  shown  by 
Fig.  298.  The  strip  E  is  composed  of  two  metals,  soldered  to- 
gether. Observe  that  the  top  of  this  strip  is  fastened  to  D ; 


TEMPERATURE    REGULATION 


the  bottom,  forming  a  hook,  is  fastened  to  the  frame  of  the  ther- 
mostat. A  variation  of  but  two  degrees  in  the  temperature  of 
a  room  will  cause  this  little  tongue  to  expand,  moving  D  and 
operating  the  valve  of  the  air  pipe.  Two  air  pipes  are  connected 
to  the  upper  part  of  the  thermostat,  one  of  them  being  the  direct 
connection  from  the  air  main  from  the  storage  tank.  The  other 
connects  the  thermostat  with  the  air  motor  of  the  valve  at  the 
radiator  or  with  the  damper  to  be  operated,  thus  directly  oper- 
ating the  valve  and  limiting  the  steam  supply  at  each  radiator 
or  the  flow  of  hot  water  to  it,  if  it  be  a  hot-water  system,  or  the 
air-mixing  dampers  should  it  be  a  blower  system. 

In    order    that    the    operation    of   the    diaphragm    valve   may 
be  clearly  understood  we  show  by  Fig.  299  a  sectional  view  of 


— E 


FIG.  300. — Exterior  of  dia- 
phragm radiator  valve. 


FIG.  299. — Interior  of  diaphragm  radiator  valve. 


it.  D  and  E  show  the  openings  for  supply  pipe  and  radi- 
ator connections.  C  is  the  seat  of  the  valve  and  B  the  disc. 
Up  to  this  point  the  body  of  the  valve  is  built  the  same  as 
an  ordinary  radiator  valve.  The  frame  supporting  the  dia- 
phragm is  adjusted  to  the  valve  immediately  below  the  stuff- 
ing box.  A  spring  is  slipped  on  the  valve  spindle  and  an  oval 
shell,  with  air  opening  A,  is  fastened  to  the  saddle  or  frame. 


314     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

To  the  under  side  of  this  shell  is  placed  a  rubber  diaphragm. 
Note  that  in  place  of  the  valve  wheel  on  the  top  of  the  valve 
spindle  is  a  curved  top  fitting  against  the  rubber  diaphragm. 
The  spring  G  keeps  the  valve  open  until  the  temperature  of 
the  room  is  sufficiently  high  for  the  thermostat  to  open  the  air 
valve  and  admit  the  compressed  air  to  the  chamber  F,  which 
presses  down  on  the  diaphragm,  closing  the  valve  and  holding  it 
in  this  position  as  long  as  the  temperature  of  the  room  is  above 


FIG.  301. — Double  damper  for 
round  flue. 


FIG.  302. — Double  damper  for  square  flue. 

the  point  desired.  When  the  temperature  cools  to  such  a  degree 
as  to  cause  the  thermostat  to  act,  the  air  pressure  is  removed  and 
the  spring  G  opens  the  valve.  Fig.  300  shows  an  exterior 
view  of  the  valve.  The  action  of  the  thermostat  is  positive  and 
quick  in  moving  the  valves.  When  impelling  the  dampers  of  a 
fan  or  hot-air  system,  that  is,  the  air  supply,  another  form  of 
the  thermostat  is  used,  which  operates  gradually.  This  is  also 
employed  on  a  hot-water  heating  apparatus. 


TEMPERATURE    REGULATION  315 

Special  forms  of  thermostats  for  air  ducts,  hot-water  tank 
supply,  etc.,  etc.,  are  applied  in  connection  with  the  Johnson  pneu- 
matic system,  and  a  system  for  handling  the  valves  of  a  vapor 
system  of  heating  is  one  of  their  achievements  of  later  date. 

When  handling  air  or  controlling  the  temperature  in  the  air 
ducts  of  a  "  hot  and  cold  "  or  fan  system  the  air  motor  is  attached 
to  the  dampers  as  shown  by  Fig.  301,  which  shows  a  double  dam- 
per for  a  round  flue,  or  by  Fig.  302,  which  shows  a  double  square 
damper. 

The  value  of  a  successful  system  of  heat  control  is  not  meas- 
ured entirely  by  the  saving  in  fuel,  which  is  variously  estimated 
from  20^  to  35^;  the  fact  of  having  an  apparatus  which  without 
any  thought  or  action  from  the  occupants  of  a  room  or  building, 
will  automatically  maintain  the  temperature  at  any  desired  degree, 
is  something  on  which  a  value  cannot  very  readily  be  placed.  In 
schools,  the  teachers  are  relieved  from  the  time  lost  and  attention 
given  the  heating  apparatus,  in  hospitals  the  value  of  an  even 
temperature  cannot  be  calculated,  while  for  our  homes,  churches 
and  offices  the  results  from  temperature  regulation  cannot  be 
measured. 


CHAPTER    XXVI 

Business  Methods 

THERE  are  certain  business  methods  in  connection  with  the 
estimating  on,  the  contracting  for  and  the  installing  of  an  appa- 
ratus for  heating  and  ventilation,  which  should  be  adopted  by 
those  already  engaged  in  or  about  to  enter  into  the  business 
of  contracting  for  work  of  this  character.  Quite  frequently  the 
owner  of  a  building  will  let  his  heating  work  to  the  contractor 
whose  bid  for  the  job  may  not  be  the  lowest,  but  who  has  de- 
scribed his  proposition  and  appliances  in  a  clear  and  concise 
manner,  who  has  submitted  a  bid  or  proposal  itemizing  and  enu- 
merating the  various  portions  of  the  apparatus  and  the  com- 
mendatory features  of  whose  proposition  are  reinforced  by  a  care- 
fully worded  guaranty,  covering  the  character  of  materials  and 
class  of  workmanship  to  be  furnished  on  the  work.  Such  a  business 
method  cannot  fail  to  be  compared  with  that  of  the  contractor 
who,  in  submitting  his  figure,  simply  notes  a  few  words  upon  a 
letterhead  bearing  his  business  title.  The  owner  is  justified  in 
expecting  a  higher  class  of  work  from  that  heating  man  who 
approaches  him  in  a  business  way  and  with  business  methods,  and 
undoubtedly  is  willing  to  pay  more  for  it. 

Estimating 

In  this,  as  in  nearly  every  other  business,  competition  is  apt 
to  be  close  and  consequently  the  estimate  covering  any  heating 
work  should  be  carefully  prepared,  diligence  and  caution  being 
exercised  that  no  important  items  are  omitted.  For  this  purpose 
an  estimate  book  or  a  carefully  arranged  sheet  should  be  em- 
ployed. Various  large  jobs  require  special  items.  The  ordinary 
job  of  steam  or  hot-water  heating  may  be  thoroughly  covered 
by  the  sample  estimate  sheet  shown  on  the  following  pages.  The 

316 


DIM  KXSIONS  AND  DATA 

iJ.ll 

1  ft  i 

h  i  S  J 

£  i 

:       '       i 
j              i 

Jl  j 

~A      C 
'7.     '£ 

~              -S: 

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II 
Ih 

1"       1     -J 

1      .       ~ 

g2 

i 

Steam.  Jl.  W. 
Total  heater  capacity  required  970  1  ,075 
Heater  No.  20  Success. 

r  ..  (  Steam,  1,000'. 
Capacity  j  JIot  Wa^  ^^ 

2oo=      o      =====0          o==o 

* 

5                 1       = 

I        i  I 

HADIATOU8. 

8TIOAM. 

•qSijj 

fe      ^      %      5;                              %      %     ft     %     %     %                      fe      fe     *      5: 

j. 

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£££?£        •      «2£2S£S2£U     £  S  x  x 

| 

A 

•g             r 

Steam.  H.  W. 
1  )iivct  Uadiation  595  940 
Indirect  limitation  120  200 
Add  50  JUT  cent  of  Indirect  for  Boiler  capacity  .  CO  100 
Add  radiation  in  Mains  and  Risers  195  435 

•jowipu! 

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317 


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318 


BUSINESS   METHODS 

detail  represents  an  estimate  for  both  steam  and  hot  water  for  A 
brick  three-story  dwelling.  The  rule  "  2— 20— 200  »  is  used  in 
estimating  the  amcmnt  of  radiation  required;  the  prices  inserted 
are  fictitious,  being  given  for  the  sole  purpose  of  instructing  our 
readers  in  the  right  course  to  pursue  in  correctly  Ming  out  the 
blanks  on  estimate  sheet. 

Haying  estimated  carefully  the  requirements  of  the  work,  size 
of  heater,  square  feet  of  radiation,  etc,,  etc,,  and  checked  over 
the  cost  figures  to  insure  accuracy,  the  next  step  is  to  prepare 
A  proposal  and  bid  to  submit  to  the  owner. 

Proposal  and  Bid 

Printed  forms  arranged  with  spaces  left  blank  for  filling  in 
with  a  pen  may  be  procured  for  this  purpose.  It  is  our  belief, 
however,  that  a  typewritten  form  of  proposal  and  bid  is  better 
suited  to  the  purpose,  as  the  printed  forms  must  necessarily  con- 
tain much  matter  which  has  to  be  crossed  off  or  eliminated  to 
cover  certain  work,  but  which,  if  excluded  from  the  printed  form, 
would  for  certain  other  work  have  to  be  inserted  with  a  pen.  We 
submit  the  following  form  of  proposal  as  covering  such  detail  as 
is  necessary,  and  the  bid  attach**!  becomes  A  legal  contract  after 
the  signatures  of  both  the  contractor  and  the  owner  are  add**! 
to  it.  The  usual  practice  is  to  make  two  copies,  the  contractor 
signing  both  of  them  before  submitting  to  the  owner,  who,  if  he 
accept*  the  proposition  submitted,  signs  the  acceptance  clause 
and  returns  one  copy  to  the  heating  contractor, 

As  no  one  style  of  proposal  can  cover  both  steam  and  hot 
water  work,  we  give  separate  forms  for  each.  Where  the  dotted 

horizontal  line  ", "  occurs  it  denotes  space  in  which  the 

name  of  the  boiler,  radiator  or  other  goods  to  be  used,  should 
be  inserted. 


nd  Bid  to  Steam-  Heating  Apparatus 

General. — These  specifications  are  intended  to  cover  a  com- 
plete low-pressure  stem-heating  apparatus  and  it  is  understood 
that  the  «ome  will  be  placed  exactly  as  specified, 

1,  K<nUr.—l  win  furnish  and  erect  in  basement  one  Mo, 

Steam  Boiler,  The  exterior  surface  of  the  boiler,  with 


320     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


the  exception  of  the  front,  to  be  thoroughly  covered  with  asbestos 
cement.  The  boiler  will  be  provided  with  a  complete  set  of  trim- 
mings, which  shall  consist  of  automatic  damper  regulator,  safety 
valve,  water  column  and  gauge,  steam  gauge  and  blow-off  cock, 
and  a  complete  set  of  firing  tools,  consisting  of  poker,  slice  bar, 
ash  hoe  and  flue-cleaning  brushes.  Connection  is  to  be  made  to 
the  boiler  from  water  pipe  in  basement  to  supply  water  to  the 
boiler.  A  %"  steam  cock  or  globe  valve  will  be  placed  on  this 
pipe. 

2.  Foundation. — A  suitable  and  substantial  brick  and  cement 
foundation  for  the  boiler  will  be  constructed  by  me. 

3.  Smoke  Pipe. — I  will  make  necessary  smoke  connection  from 
boiler  to  chimney  by. means  of  a  galvanized  iron  smoke  pipe  .... 
inches  in  diameter,  made  of   ....   gauge  iron  and  provided  with 
a  suitable  damper.      Owner  is  to  provide  a  good   chimney  with 
sufficient  draught  for  the  work. 

SCHEDULE    OF   RADIATION 


Ft.  Rad. 

Style. 

Height. 

Tap. 

Tempera- 
ture. 

First  Floor. 

Parlor  

1  Rad. 

50 

38* 

i  1/" 

70° 

Sittiii"  Room 

1     " 

60 

38* 

1  1/" 

70° 

Library  

1     " 

50 

38*    , 

\VH 

4  U 

70° 

Dining  Room  

1     " 

85 

38* 

114" 

70° 

Reception  Hall  .... 

1     " 

120 

Pin  Indirect 

1l-£Xl" 

70° 

(Stairs  out) 

Second  Floor. 

Over  Parlor  

Iliad. 

45 

38* 

\VA" 

70° 

Over  Sitting  Room  . 
Over  Library  

1 
1 

50 
35 

38* 
38* 

W" 

70° 

70° 

Over  Dining  Room 

1 

45 

38* 

lit" 

70° 

Over  Hall  1 

10 

38* 

70° 

Bathroom  1 

20            

38* 

l1/^" 

70° 

Upper   Hall     (In- 
cluded in  Recep- 

tion Hall). 

Third  Floor. 

Front  Chamber.  .  .  . 

1  Rad. 

35 

38* 

I1/* 

70° 

Middle  Chamber.  . 

1     " 

35 

38* 

ll|* 

70° 

Rear  Chamber.  .  .  . 

1     " 

30 

38* 

70° 

Bathroom  

1     " 

15 

38* 

1* 

70° 

715  sq.  ft. 

BUSINESS    METHODS 

4.  System  of  Warming. — Building  is  to  be  warmed  through- 
out by  direct  radiators,  except  as  noted  in  the  schedule  of  radia- 
tion.    Radiators  are  to  be  of  such  kinds  and  heights  as  indicated. 
Wherever  possible  radiators  will  be  placed  along  outside  or  ex- 
posed walls,  their  positions  conforming,  in  so  far  as  possible,  to 
the  wishes  of  the  owner. 

5.  Radiation. — I  will  erect  and  connect  in  building  the  total 
amount  of  radiating  surface  as  indicated  in  the   schedule  given. 
All  direct  radiators  shall  be  of make,  ....  or  ....  col- 
umn and  divided  and  placed  as  specified. 

6.  Radiator    Valves. — All    radiators    shall    be    connected    to 
piping,  using  a  heavy  pattern,  wood  wheel,  Jenkins  Disc  radiator 
valve  in  each  instance,  with  rough  body,  nickel  plated  all  over, 
and  of  a  size  to  conform  to  the  tapping  as  given  for  each  radi- 
ator in  the  schedule. 

7.  Air   Valves. — Each   radiator   and  the  steam  mains   in   the 
basement,   where   necessary,    shall   be   provided   with   a   first-class 
automatic  air  valve  of  the pattern. 

8.  Pipe  and  Fittings. — The  piping  is  to  be  erected  according 
to  what  is  known  as  the system  of  gravity  steam  heat- 
ing.    All  main  pipes  shall  have  a  pitch  downward  from  the  boiler 
at  least  %"  in  each  10  feet  of  length.     All  branches  shall  pitch 
upward  from  mains  at  least  %"  in  each  5  feet  of  length.     In  the 
event  of  it  being  necessary  to  pitch  any  branches  downward,  there 
will  be  a  heel  drip  taken  from  the  bottom  of  the  riser  so  supplied 
and  this  drip  will  be  connected  into  a  wet  return.     All  pipe  to 
be  of  full  weight  and  standard  quality.     All  risers  to  be  put  up 
plumb  and  straight  and  all  joints  made  tight.     All  fittings  to  be 
of   the  best  gray   iron,  flat  beaded   and   having   clean-cut   taper 
threads. 

9.  Hangers. — Pipe  in  basement  is   to  be  hung  on  expansion 
pipe  hangers  of  approved  pattern,  to  allow   of  perfect   freedom 
from  expansion  and  contraction. 

10.  Cutting. — I  will  do  all  necessary  cutting  of  holes  through 
floors  and  walls  for  the  passage  of  pipes.     Any  breakages  to  walls 
or  floors  resulting  from  such  work  will  be  remedied  by  me  and 
the  walls  and  floors  left  in  first-class  condition. 

11.  Floor   and   Ceiling   Plates. — Where   pipes    pass    through 


322     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

floors  or  ceilings, nickel-plated  floor  and  ceiling  plates 

shall  be  used.     In  case  of  pipes  coming  in  contact  with  woodwork, 
the  opening  shall  be  lined  with  a  good  quality  of  tin. 

12.  Bronzing  and  Painting. — All  exposed  piping  and  radia- 
tors above  the  basement  will  be  given  a  priming  coat  of  paint, 
followed  by  a  coat  of  gold  or  aluminum  bronze,  as  may  be  desired 
by    the   owner.      All   basement    piping   and    all   portions    of    the 
boiler  uncovered  shall  be  painted  with  black  asphaltum. 

13.  Pipe  Covering. — All  steam  pipes  in  the  basement,  both 
flow  and  return,  will  be  covered  with low-pressure  sec- 
tional pipe  covering.      Same  to  be  neatly  and  securely  fastened 
with  brass  bands  placed  three  to  each  length  of  covering.     All 
fittings  to  be  covered  with  magnesia-asbestos  plastic  cement. 

14.  Setting   of   Direct-Indirect    Radiators. — I    shall    provide 
box  bases  with  suitable  dampers  for  all  direct-indirect  radiators 
and  shall  provide  proper  wall  boxes  to  be  set  by  the  mason  in  the 
walls  of  the  building.     On  connecting  the  radiator  to  the  piping 
will  make  proper  connection  from  the  wall  box  to  the  box  base 
by  means  of  a  galvanized  iron  duct  or  sleeve. 

15.  Hanging  Indirect  Radiators. — All  indirect  radiators  shall 
be  suspended  from  the  ceiling  of  the  basement  by  suitable  wrought 
iron  hangers,  at  such  a  height  that  the  bottom  of  the  radiators 
will  be  at  least  18"  above  the  water  line  of  boiler.     All  stacks  of 
indirect  radiation  so  hung  shall  be  piped  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
permit   of  a   free  and   easy   circulation   throughout   their   entire 
surfaces. 

16.  Casing,  Air  Ducts,  etc. — All  indirect  radiators   shall  be 
cased  with  a  boxing  made  of  heavy  galvanized  iron,  constructed 
in  such  a  manner  that  a  portion  of  the  bottom  may  be  readily 
removed    for    cleaning    purposes.      The    casing    shall    fit    snugly 
around  the  sides  of  the  radiators  in  order  that  the  cold  air  shall 
pass  between  the  surfaces  instead  of  around  them.     The  cold-air 
ducts  will  be  made  of  galvanized  iron  and  provided  with  a  suitable 
damper  and  will  be  of  such  sizes  as  are  necessary  to  supply  the 
proper  amount  of  cold  air  to  the  radiators.     The  hot-air  duct 
shall  be  connected  from   the  top   of  the   casing  to   the   register 
boxing  in  floor  above. 

17.  Registers  and  Register  Boxes. — All  registers  shall  be  of 


BUSINESS    METHODS  323 

design.     The  area  of  the  openings  in  same  will  not  be 

less  than  the  area  of  the  warm-air  duct.  Registers  will  be  set 
firmly  in  the  wall  or  floor  and  flush  with  the  same.  Register  boxes 
made  of  bright  I.  C.  tin  shall  be  provided  for  each  of  the  register 
openings. 

(The  clauses  14,  15,  16  and  17  should  be  omitted  except  where 
direct-indirect  or  indirect  radiators  are  specified  in  a  contract.) 

18.  In  General. — The  material  used  in  the  construction  of  this 
apparatus  will  be  new  and  of  the  best  quality  and  the  work  put 
up  by  skilled  workmen.     When  the  apparatus  is  completed  it  will 
be  fired  up  and  tested  in  the  presence  of  the  owner  or  his  repre- 
sentative and  left  in  good  order  ready  for  use. 

19.  Guaranty. — I  guarantee  this  work  in  every  respect:  that 
when  completed  it  shall  be  free  from  mechanical  defects  and  noise- 
less in  operation,  and  that  after  the  apparatus  shall  have  been 
accepted  by  the  owner,  any  part  thereof  shall  fail  to  accomplish 
the   guaranty  herein   contained  by   reason   of  any  defect  due  to 
my  workmanship  or  the  materials  furnished,  I  agree  to  remedy 
such  defects  at  once  at  my  expense.     It  is  understood  that  the 
term  "  defect  "  as  above  used  shall  not  be  construed  as  embracing 
such  imperfections  as  would  naturally  follow  improper  treatment, 
accident,  or  the  wear  and  tear  of  use. 

20.  Bid. — I  agree  to  furnish  the  material  herein  specified  and 
do  the  work  as  herein  enumerated  for  the  sum  of  Seven  Hundred 
and  Thirty-nine  Dollars  and  thirty-four  cents  ($739.34). 

Payments  to  be  made  as  follows:  One  third  when  boiler  is 
erected  and  material  delivered  on  the  job,  one  third  when  radiators 
are  delivered  and  connected  to  the  system,  and  the  remaining  one 
third  after  job  shall  have  been  completed  and  tested. 

(Signed)  JOHN  H.  JONES. 

21.  Acceptance. 

To  JOHN  H.  JONES,  Heating  Contractor. 

I  hereby  accept  your  proposal  and  bid  for  installing  a  com- 
plete steam-heating  apparatus  in  my  residence  and  for  the  same 
agree  to  pay  you  Seven  Hundred  and  Thirty-nine  Dollars  and 
thirty-four  cents  ($739.34). 

Payments  to  be  made  as  above  specified. 
(Date) (Signed)  R.  D.  BLANK. 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


Proposal  and  Bid  for  Hot- Water  Heating  Apparatus 

General. — These  specifications  are  intended  to  cover  a  com- 
plete hot-water  heating  apparatus  and  it  is  understood  that  the 
same  will  be  placed  exactly  as  specified. 

1.  Heater. — I  will  furnish  and  erect  in  basement  one  No 

Hot-water  Heater.     The  exterior  surface  of  the  boiler, 

with  the  exception  of  the  front,  to  be  thoroughly  covered  with 
asbestos  cement.      The  heater  will  be  provided  with  a  complete 
set  of  firing  tools,  consisting  of  poker,  slice  bar,  ash  hoe,  and  flue- 
cleaning  brushes. 

2.  Foundation. — A  suitable  and  substantial  brick  and  cement 
foundation  for  the  heater  will  be  constructed  by  me. 

3.  Smoke  Pipe. — I  will  make  necessary  smoke  connection  from 
heater  to  chimney  by  means  of  a  galvanized  iron  smoke  pipe  .... 
inches  in  diameter,  made  of   ....   gauge  iron  and  provided  with 
a  suitable  damper.      Owner  is  to  provide  a  good   chimney  with 
sufficient  draught  for  the  work. 

SCHEDULE  OF  RADIATION 


Ft.  Rad. 

Style. 

Height. 

Tap. 

Tempera- 
ture. 

First  Floor. 
Parlor 

1  Rad. 
1     " 

1     " 
2  Rads. 
1  Rad. 

Rad. 

<« 

tt 

1  Rad. 
1     " 
1     " 
1     " 

80 
95 
80 
135 
200 

70 
80 
55 
70 
65 
30 

55 
55 
50 
20 

38" 

38" 
38" 
38" 
direct 

38" 
38" 
38" 
38" 
38" 
38" 

38" 
38" 
38" 
38" 

w 

IVo" 

\w 

w 

V4* 

\W 

W 
i" 

1M" 
W 
i" 

i" 
i" 
i" 
i" 

70° 
70° 
70° 
70° 
70° 

70° 
70° 
70° 
70° 
70° 
70° 

70° 
70° 

70° 

70° 

Sitting  Room  
Library  
Dining  Room  
Reception  Hall  .... 

Second  Floor. 
Over  Parlor  
Over  Sitting  Room 
Over  Library  
Over  Dining  Room 
Over  Hall  
Bathroom  
Upper    Hall    (In- 
cluded in  Recep- 
tion Hall) 

Third  Floor. 
Front  Chamber.  .  . 
Middle  Chamber.  . 
Rear  Chamber.  .  .  . 
Bathroom  

"  Pi  Air 



1,1  40  sq.ft. 

BUSINESS    METHODS  325 

4.  System  of  Warming.— Building  is  to  be  warmed  through- 
out by  direct  radiators,  except  as  noted  in  the  schedule  of  radia- 
tion.    Radiators  are  to  be  of  such  kinds  and  heights  as  indicated. 
Wherever  possible,  radiators  will  be  placed  along  outside  or  ex- 
posed walls,  their  positions  conforming,  in  so  far  as  possible,  to 
the  wishes  of  the  owner. 

5.  Radiation. — I  will  erect  and  connect  in  building  the  total 
amount   of  radiating  surface  as   indicated  in  the  schedule  given. 
All  direct  radiators  shall  be  of  ........  make,  .  .    ..  or  ....  col- 
umn and  divided  and  placed  as  specified. 

6.  Altitude  Gauge  and  Thermometer. — I  shall  place  on  the 
heater  an  altitude  gauge  in  order  to  show  at  the  heater  the  height 
of  the  water  in  the  expansion  tank.     I  shall  also  place  on  the 
heater  a  first-class  hot-water  thermometer. 

7.  Expansion  Tank  and  Gauge. — I  shall  place  on  the  work  a 
heavy  galvanized  steel  expansion  tank  of  suitable  size,  with  gauge 
glass  complete.   Tank  to  be  placed  on   suitable  shelf  in  bath  or 
other  room  at  least  three  feet  above  one  of  the  highest  radiators 
on  the  system.     Overflow  connection  shall  be  made  through  roof. 

8.  Water  Connection. — I  will  make  necessary  water  connec- 
tion from  water  pipe  in  basement  to  bottom  and  rear  of  heater 
and  place  on  this  connection  a  suitable  globe  valve  or  stopcock. 

9.  Radiator   Valves  and  Union  Elbows. — Each   radiator  will 
be  connected  to  the  system  of  piping  with  a  rough  body,  wood 
wheel,  quick  opening  hot-water  radiator  valve  with  union,  to  be 
of   heavy   pattern   and  nickel   plated   all   over.      Return   ends    of 
radiators  to  be  connected  to  return  pipes  by  the  use  of  a  heavy 
pattern,    nickel-plated   brass   union    elbow.      Sizes    of   valves    and 
elbows  to  conform  to  the  tappings  as  given  in  above  schedule  of 
radiation. 

10.  Air  Valves. — Each  radiator  shall  be  provided  with  a  lock- 
shield  nickel-plated  brass  air  valve  operated  with  a  key. 

11.  Pipe  and  Fittings. — System  of  piping  used  shall  be  the 
gravity  return  system  of  hot-water  piping.     All  mains  shall  pitch 
upward  from  boiler  at  least  1"  in  each  10  feet  of  length,  and  all 
branches   shall  pitch  upward   from  mains  at  least   1"    in   each  5 
feet  of  length.     All  flow  and  return  mains  to  be  put  up  plumb  and 
straight  and  all  joints  made  tight.     All  pipe  to  be  of  best  quality 


326     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

wrought  iron,  of  standard  weight,  and  all  fittings  to  be  of  the 
best  gray  iron  of  heavy  pattern,  flat  beaded,  having  clean-cut 
taper  threads. 

12.  Hangers. — Pipe  in  basement  is  to  be  hung  on  expansion 
pipe  hangers  of  approved  pattern,  to  allow  of  perfect  freedom 
from  expansion  and  contraction. 

13.  Cutting. — I  will  do  all  necessary  cutting  of  holes  through 
floors  and  walls  for  the  passage  of  pipes.     Any  breakages  to  walls 
or  floors  resulting  from  such  work  will  be  remedied  by  me  and  the 
walls  and  floors  left  in  first-class  condition. 

14.  Floor   and   Ceiling  Plates. — Where   pipes    pass   through 

floors  or  ceilings, nickel-plated  floor  and  ceiling  plates 

shall  be  used.     In  case  of  pipes  coming  in  contact  with  woodwork, 
the  opening  shall  be  lined  with  a  good  quality  of  tin. 

15.  Bronzing  and  Painting. — All  exposed  piping   and   radi- 
ators above'  the  basement  will  be  given  a  priming  coat  of  paint, 
followed  by  a  coat  of  gold  or  aluminum  bronze,  as  may  be  selected 
by  the  owner.     All  basement  piping  and  all  portions  of  the  boiler 
uncovered  shall  be  painted  with  black  asphaltum. 

16.  Pipe  Covering. — All  pipes  in  the  basement,  both  flow  and 

return,  will  be  covered  with low-pressure  sectional  pipe 

covering.      Same  to  be  neatly  and  securely   fastened  with  brass 
bands  placed  three  to  each  length  of  the  covering.     All  fittings 
to  be  covered  with  magnesia-asbestos  plastic  cement. 

17.  Setting   of    Direct-Indirect    Radiators. — I    shall    provide 
box  bases  with  suitable  dampers  for  all  direct-indirect  radiators 
and  shall  provide  proper  wall  boxes  to  be  set  by  the  mason  in 
the  walls  of  the  building.      On   connecting  the   radiator   to   the 
piping  I  will  make  proper  connection  from  the  wall  box  to  the 
box  base  by  means  of  a  galvanized  iron  duct  or  sleeve. 

18.  Hanging  Indirect  Radiators. — All  indirect  radiators  shall 
be  suspended  from  the  ceiling  of  the  basement  by  suitable  wrought- 
iron  hangers.     The  connections  to  the  same  shall  be  made  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  permit  of  a  perfect  circulation  throughout  their 
entire  surfaces. 

19.  Casing,  Air  Ducts,  etc. — All  indirect   radiators   shall  be 
cased  with  a  boxing  made  of  heavy  galvanized  iron,  constructed  in 
such  a  manner  that  a  portion  of  the  bottom  may  be  readily  removed 


BUSINESS    METHODS  327 

for  cleaning  purposes.  The  casing  shall  fit  snugly  around  the 
sides  of  the  radiators  in  order  that  the  cold  air  shall  pass  between 
the  surfaces  instead  of  around  them.  The  cold-air  ducts  will  be 
made  of  galvanized  iron  and  provided  with  a  suitable  damper  and 
will  be  of  such  sizes  as  are  necessary  to  supply  the  proper  amount 
of  cold  air  to  the  radiators.  The  hot-air  duct  shall  be  connected 
from  the  top  of  the  casing  to  the  register  boxing  in  floor  above. 

20.  Registers  and  Register  Boxes. — All  registers  shall  be  of 

design.     The  area  of  the  openings  in  same  will  not  be 

less  than  the  area  of  the  warm-air  duct.     Registers  will  be  set 
firmly   in  the  wall  or  floor  and  flush  with  the   same.      Register 
boxes  made  of  bright  I.  C.  tin  shall  be  provided  for  each  of  the 
register  openings. 

(The  clauses  17,  18,  19  and  20  should  be  omitted,  except  where 
direct-indirect  or  indirect  radiators  are  specified  in  a  contract.) 

21.  In  General. — The  material  used  in  the  construction  of  this 
apparatus  shall  be  new  and  of  the  best  quality  and  the  work  put 
up  by  skilled  workmen.     When  the  apparatus  is  completed  it  will 
be  fired  up  and  tested  in  the  presence  of  the  owner  or  his  repre- 
sentative and  left  in  good  order  ready  for  use. 

22.  Guaranty. — I  guarantee  this  work  in  every  respect,  that 
when  completed  it  shall  be  free  from  mechanical  defects  and  noise- 
less in  operation,  and  that  after  the  apparatus  shall  have  been 
accepted  by  the  owner,  any  part  thereof  shall  fail  to  accomplish 
the  guaranty  herein  contained  by  reason  of  any  defect  due  to  my 
workmanship  or  the  materials  furnished,  I  agree  to  remedy  such 
defects  at  once  at  my  expense.     It  is  understood  that  the  term 
"  defect  "   as   above   used   shall   not   be   construed   as    embracing 
such  imperfections  as  would  naturally  follow  improper  treatment, 
accident,  or  the  wear  and  tear  of  use. 

23.  Bid. — I  agree  to  furnish  the  material  herein  specified  and 
do  the  work  as  herein  enumerated  for  the  sum  of  Nine  Hundred 
and  Ninety-one  Dollars  and  fifty-two  cents  ($991.52). 

Payments  to  be  made  as  follows:  One  third  when  boiler  is 
erected  and  material  delivered  on  the  job,  one  third  when  radia- 
tors are  delivered  and  connected  to  the  system,  and  the  remain- 
ing one  third  after  job  shall  have  been  completed  and  tested. 

(Signed)  JOHN  H.  JONES. 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

24.  Acceptance. 
To  JOHN  H.  JONES,  Heating  Contractor. 

I  hereby  accept  your  proposal  and  bid  for  installing  a  com- 
plete hot-water  heating  apparatus  in  my  residence  and  for  the 
same  agree  to  pay  you  Nine  Hundred  and  Ninety-one  Dollars  and 
fifty-two  cents  ($991.52). 

Payments  to  be  made  as  above  specified. 
(Date) (Signed)  R.   D.   BLANK. 

Special  Features  of  Contracts 

Should    there    be    any    special    materials    or    extra    work    de- 
manded, each  additional  item  should  be  made  the   subject   of  a 
special  paragraph  and   incorporated  in   the   specifications.      The 
following  include  some  such  items  as  might  be  necessary: 
Radiator  boards, 

Temporary  use  of  apparatus  (charge  for  same), 
Coil  in  heater  or  boiler   for  heating  water  for  domestic   use, 
Domestic   water   supply   where   a   tank   with  steam   coil   in   same 
is  provided  for  use  with  a  steam  boiler. 

There  should  also  be  figured  such  "  extras  "  on  the  work, 
as  additional  charges  for  low  radiators,  peculiar  decoration  of 
radiators,  etc.,  etc.  Again,  it  is  customary  for  some  contractors 
to  insert  a  clause  in  the  specifications  relative  to  the  construc- 
tion of  the  building.  For  example,  if  it  should  be  afterwards 
discovered  that  the  plans  of  the  job  or  the  building  to  be  heated 
or  the  information  respecting  same,  which  had  been  received 
from  the  owner  or  his  representative,  did  not  conform  to  the 
building  or  plans  of  same  as  figured,  the  heating  contractor 
charges  for  any  alterations  occasioned  by  such  misrepresenta- 
tion as  an  "  extra."  Some  heating  contractors  desire  to  insert 
a  paragraph  in  the  specifications  to  the  effect  that  if  when  the 
work  is  partially  finished  or  nearly  completed,  delay  shall  arise, 
due  to  no  fault  of  the  heating  contractor,  he  shall  be  entitled  to 
receive  settlement,  the  same  as  though  the  work  was  entirely 
completed,  except  that  a  certain  percentage  is  allowed  to  be 
withheld  pending  the  actual  completion  of  the  job.  Matters  of 
the  above  kind  are  sure  to  arise  on  heating  contracts  and  it 
is  well  to  make  mention  of  the  same  in  the  specifications  in  cases 
where  the  heating  contractor  considers  it  essential. 


CHAPTER    XXVII 

MISCELLANEOUS 

Care  of  Heating  Apparatus 

THE  life  and  efficiency  of  a  steam  or  hot  water  heating  appa- 
ratus of  whatever  nature  depend  largely  upon  the  care  and  at- 
tention given  it,  both  when  in  service  and  during  the  summer 
period  when  the  apparatus  is  not  in  use. 

Summer  Care 

It  is  when  the  apparatus  is  inoperative  that  the  greatest  dam- 
age to  it  is  wrought  by  disintegration  due  to  rust  and  the  chemical 
action  of  soot  and  ashes.  It  is,  therefore,  a  good  plan  as  soon 
as  the  season  for  artificial  heating  is  past  and  the  fire  is  allowed 
to  go  out  in  the  heater,  to  thoroughly  clean  the  grate  and  ash  pit 
of  all  ashes.  Remove  the  casing  of  the  heater,  if  of  portable 
construction.  If  not  so  provided,  open  all  clean-out  doors  and 
thoroughly  clean  all  heating  and  flue  surfaces  with  a  steel  brush. 
Remove  the  smoke  connection  and  clean  it  in  a  thorough  manner. 
Find  a  dry  place  in  which  to  store  the  smoke  pipe  for  the  sum- 
mer. Open  all  doors  of  the  heater — clean-out,  fire  and  draught 
doors — and  allow  them  to  remain  open  until  the  fire  is  again  built 
in  the  heater.  There  has  been  much  discussion,  pro  and  con,  as 
to  the  advisability  of  emptying  the  steam  boiler  or  the  hot-water 
heating  apparatus  during  the  summer  season.  Many  engineers 
and  heater  manufacturers  contend  that  the  apparatus  should  be 
left  full  of  water;  others  affirming  just  as  positively  that  it  should 
not  be.  Our  own  opinion,  based  upon  our  personal  experience 
together  with  that  of  others,  is  that  it  is  well  to  empty  the  system 
and  free  it  of  all  moisture.  We  advocate  the  following  procedure : 

Open  the  draw-off  connection  to  the  sewer,  or  with  the  use 
of  pails  drain  all  water  from  the  boiler  or  system.  Open  all  air 

329 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

vents  and  valves  in  order  that  none  of  the  water  may  be  entrained 
in  the  piping  or  radiators.  Then  build  a  light  wood  fire  in 
the  heater  and  evaporate  all  remaining  water  and  moisture  from 
the  system,  allowing  all  valves  and  air  vents  to  remain  open  until 
the  time  has  arrived  when  the  use  of  the  apparatus  is  again 
necessary,  when  the  boiler  or  system  can  be  refilled  with  fresh 
water. 

By  following  the  directions  given  the  inner  surfaces  of  the 
apparatus  may  rust  slightly,  but  will  not  scale  and  the  bronzing 
or  other  decoration  of  radiators  and  piping  will  retain  its  luster 
for  a  longer  period  of  time. 

Proper  Attention  to  Boilers 

There  are  some  few  rules  regarding  the  proper  attention  to 
a  steam  boiler  or  hot-water  heater  which  should  be  followed  in 
order  to  escape  possible  damage  to  the  heater  and  at  the  same 
time  obtain  good  results  from  the  use  of  the  apparatus.  Manu- 
facturers of  heaters,  as  a  rule,  furnish  each  customer  with  direc- 
tions for  the  care  and  operation  of  every  heater  sold  by  them. 
There  are,  however,  some  few  instructions  which  it  may  be  well 
to  repeat.  To  put  the  apparatus  in  condition  for  service,  pro- 
ceed as  follows.  (We  assume  that  the  directions  for  summer  care 
have  been  followed.) 

Put  the  smoke  connection  in  position  and  see  that  the  damper 
in  the  same  works  freely.  Replace  all  fixtures,  which  may  have 
previously  been  removed,  in  their  proper  positions.  Refill  the 
apparatus  with  water.  If  a  steam  boiler,  it  should  be  refilled 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  gauge  on  the  water  column  stands 
about  one  half  full  of  water.  If  a  hot-water  apparatus,  the  sys- 
tem should  be  refilled  to  such  an  extent  that  the  gauge  glass 
on  the  expansion  tank  stands  about  one  quarter  full  of  water. 
With  a  key  suitable  for  the  purpose,  open  each  one  of  the  air 
valves,  using  a  small  cup  to  catch  any  water  that  may  flow  out. 
Go  over  the  entire  system,  freeing  each  radiator  of  all  air. 

Now  examine  the  gauge  on  the  expansion  tank  and  in  all 
probability  you  will  discover  that  it  is  necessary  to  turn  more 
water  into  the  system.  If  a  steam  apparatus,  see  that  the  damper 


MISCELLANEOUS  331 

regulator  is  properly  connected  to  draught  and  check  doors  and 
try  the  safety  valve  to  insure  its  working  freely. 

The  apparatus  is  now  ready  for  the  season's  service.  In 
building  the  first  fire,  note  with  care  that  the  grate  is  thor- 
oughly covered  with  wood  before  putting  on  any  coal  in  order 
that  no  unburnt  coal  will  fall  down  on  the  grate  and  thereby 
deaden  the  fire.  Add  a  quantity  of  coal  from  time  to  time  until 
there  is  a  deep  clean  fire  in  the  heater.  Endeavor  to  keep  it  in 
this  condition  while  the  apparatus  is  in  use,  remembering  that 
there  is  no  economy  in  a  shallow  fire  and  that  a  heater  fire  pot 
partially  filled  with  ashes  or  the  grate  with  unburnt  coal  will  not 
give  proper  results.  The  ashes  should  be  removed  daily  to  pre- 
vent the  possible  burning  out  or  warping  of  the  grate. 

Should  the  water  in  a  steam  boiler  become  low  through  acci- 
dent or  neglect,  do  not  refill  the  apparatus  until  the  fire  has 
been  drawn  and  the  boiler  castings  allowed  to  cool.  With  some 
of  those  boilers  constructed  with  a  water  base,  this  course  is  not 
absolutely  necessary,  although  it  is  the  safer  plan  to  pursue.  As 
long  as  any  water  shows  in  the  gauge  glass  of  a  steam  boiler,  fresh 
water  may  be  supplied  with  safety. 

Clean  all  heating  and  flue  surfaces  of  soot  at  least  once  each 
week.  Soot  is  a  great  non-conductor  of  heat  and  the  boilers 
whose  surfaces  are  allowed  to  remain  coated  with  soot,  require 
more  attention  and  consume  a  greater  amount  of  fuel  than  those 
in  which  the  surfaces  are  kept  thoroughly  clean  from  all  accu- 
mulation of  such  dirt.  Steel  wire  brushes  are  made  for  this  pur- 
pose and  with  their  proper  use  a  satisfactory  cleaning  of  the 
heating  surfaces  can  be  obtained. 

Should  a  building  remain  unoccupied  during  cold  weather, 
or  should  it  be  closed  temporarily  in  winter,  all  water  should  be 
drawn  off  and  evaporated  from  the  system  in  order  to  offset 
a  possible  danger  from  freezing. 

Removing  Oil  and  Dirt 

In  all  new  heating  systems  there  is  more  or  less  oil  and  dirt 
present.  The  oil  from  machined  castings,  radiator  tappings  and 
pipe  threading  will  work  down  into  the  boiler  as  will  also  particles 
of  core  sand  from  the  radiator  and  boiler  castings.  The  oil  with 


S32     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

considerable  dirt  forms  a  scum  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in 
the  boiler,  causing  it  to  foam  and  at  the  same  time  preventing 
the  generation  of  steam.  This  action  frequently  produces  an  un- 
steady water-line  and  hinders  the  proper  working  of  the  apparatus. 

The  remedy  for  this  condition  is  to  blow  off  the  boiler  while 
under  pressure.  This  should  be  done  several  times  at  intervals 
of  a  week  or  more  until  the  oil  has  been  thoroughly  removed. 

To  successfully  blow  off  a  steam  boiler,  close  all  radiator 
valves  and  build  a  good  wood  fire  in  the  heater,  generating  a 
pressure  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  pounds.  Open  the  blow-off  valve 
and  let  the  pressure  of  the  steam  blow  all  water  put  of  the  boiler. 
With  it  this  water  will  carry  most  of  the  dirt  and  the  greasy 
scum  or  oil.  Allow  the  fire  to  burn  out  and  the  castings  to 
cool,  after  which  the  boiler  can  be  again  refilled  and  the  fire 
started. 

The  blow-off  is  usually  located  at  the  bottom  and  rear  of  the 
boiler  and  as  much  of  the  oil  will  adhere  to  the  inner  surfaces 
of  the  boiler,  as  the  water  settles  or  is  forced  out,  it  is  often 
necessary  to  repeat  this  cleaning  operation  several  times. 

Some  manufacturers  of  sectional  boilers,  recognizing  the  ex- 
tent of  the  trouble  due  to  the  presence  of  oil,  have  provided  their 
boilers  with  a  blow-off  located  at  the  rear  a  few  inches  below  the 
water  line.  Where  such  an  opening  is  furnished,  the  scum  and 
oil  are  readily  blown  out  from  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  ac- 
cumulation of  dirt  being  removed  through  the  draw-off  cock  at 
the  bottom  of  the  boiler.  The  blow-off  opening  should  be  at  least 
1%"  in  diameter,  and  a  still  larger  opening  is  preferable.  Such 
a  provision  is  styled  a  "  surface  blow-off  "  by  some  fitters  and 
engineers. 

Summer  Tests  to  Determine  Efficiency 

Although  the  fact  is  not  generally  recognized  by  the  con- 
tracting fitter,  a  heating  apparatus  may  be  tested  as  to  its  effi- 
ciency on  a  wTarm  summer's  day  as  well  as  in  midwinter.  Prof. 
R.  C.  Carpenter  has  laid  down  a  rule  which  the  writer  has  for 
some  years  followed  in  actual  practice  and  we  can,  therefore, 
testify  and  vouch  to  the  correctness  of  it.  The  table  given  shows 
in  Column  Four  (Resulting  Temperature  of  Room)  the  tempera- 


MISCELLANEOUS 


tures  which  a  room  would  have  for  various  degrees  of  heat  out- 
side, provided  the  radiation  placed  was  sufficient  to  warm  the  room 
to  70°  in  zero  weather  with  three  pouirds  pressure  of  steam  or 
220°  temperature. 

TABLE  XXVm 


Temperature 
Outside  Air. 

Coefficient  Heat 
per  Square  Foot 
per  Hour  per 
Degree. 

Total  Heat  per 
Square  Foot 
per  Hour. 

Resulting  Tem- 
perature of 
Room. 

Difference  Tem- 
perature Radia- 
tor and  Room. 

-10 

.85 

288 

64.7 

155.3 

0 

.8 

270 

70 

150 

10 

.75 

253 

75.1 

144.9 

20 

.7 

236 

81 

139 

30 

.65 

218 

86.5 

133.5 

40 

.6 

203 

93.1 

128 

50 

.55 

188 

98.7 

122.5 

60 

.5 

172 

104.7 

116.5 

70 

.45 

158 

110.5 

109.5 

80 

1.4 

142 

117.1 

102.9 

90 

1.35 

130.5 

123.5 

96.5 

100 

1.3 

117 

130.3 

89.7 

Example  showing  application  of  Table :  To  determine  by  a  test 
of  the  apparatus,  when  weather  is  60°,  whether  a  guaranty  to 
heat  to  70°  in  zero  weather  is  maintained,  operate  the  apparatus 
as  though  in  regular  use  and  note  the  average  temperature  of 
the  room.  If  the  room  has  a  temperature  equal  to  or  in  excess  of 
104.7°  F.,  it  would  have  a  temperature  of  70°  in  zero  weather, 
all  other  conditions,  such  as  wind,  position  of  windows,  etc.,  being 
the  same  as  on  the  day  of  the  test. 

Care  of  Tools 

In  order  to  perform  good  work  rapidly  it  is  necessary  to  have 
serviceable  and  sharp  tools,  particularly  wrenches  and  those  for 
pipe  cutting  and  threading.  Judging  from  the  author's  personal 
experience  the  old  axiom  "  A  workman  is  known  by  his  tools  " 
was  apparently  never  intended  to  apply  to  a  journeyman  steam 
fitter  for,  as  a  class,  the  ordinary  steam  fitter  can  break,  mutilate 
or  otherwise  destroy  the  efficiency  of  a  tool  quicker  and  with  more 
reckless  abandon  than  any  other  tradesman  we  have  ever  come  in 
contact  with  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  there  is  absolutely  no  other 
trade  where  good  and  sharp  tools  are  more  necessary  for  efficient 


334     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

and  rapid  work  than  that  of  pipe  fitting.  There  are  some  shop 
rules  governing  the  care  and  use  of  tools  which  might  be  adopted 
by  all  heating  contractors  to  good  advantage. 

First,  a  complete  kit  of  tools  should  be  furnished  each  jour- 
neyman fitter  and  h.e  should  be  charged  with  and  held  personally 
responsible  for  them  and  their  condition.  A  steam  fitter  cannot 
be  expected  to  make  good  time  on  work  when  he  is  furnished 
with  wrenches  that  will  not  "  bite  "  nor  take  proper  hold  of  a 
pipe  until  after  possibly  three  or  four  trials.  Neither  can  good, 
clean  threads  be  cut  with  dull  or  imperfect  dies.  For  the  reasons 
given  these  tools  should  have  frequent  and  careful  scrutiny  by 
the  master  fitter  or  his  shop  boss. 

Second,  the  fitter  should  be  instructed  to  allow  his  helper  to 
spend  the  last  fifteen  or  thirty  minutes  of  each  working  day  in 
gathering  together  and  cleaning  all  tools  which  have  been  in  use 
and  all  broken  or  dulled  tools  should  be  promptly  returned  to  the 
shop.  It  is  well  to  have  a  tool  chest  for  each  individual  kit  of 
tools.  Iron  chests,  made  for  this  purpose,  are  models  of  con- 
venience. 

To  a  contractor  doing  any  considerable  amount  of  work  a 
pipe-cutting  and  threading  machine  will  pay  for  itself  in  the  labor 
saved  on  one  or  two  fair-sized  jobs.  It  is  well  to  have  one  large 
machine  for  shop  use  and  one  or  more  portable  machines  cut- 
ting and  threading  up  to  4"  for  use  on  the  job. 

Labor  Saving  Suggestions 

There  are  some  methods  of  saving  time  and  money  on  contract 
work  which  are  worthy  of  consideration.  Do  not  allow  the  fitter 
to  do  the  unskilled  work  of  a  laborer.  Large  pipe  should  be 
handled  by  laborers  and  the  radiation  on  a  job  should  be  car- 
ried into  and  distributed  throughout  the  building  by  the  teamster 
and  one  or  two  laborers  under  the  direction  of  the  fitter  or  in 
accordance  with  an  itemized  list  furnished  the  driver. 

Do  not  allow  the  cutting  off  of  a  short  piece  of  pipe  without 
first  threading  one  end  of  it.  These  short  pieces  of  pipe  may 
then  be  returned  to  the  shop  and  the  other  end  of  each  piece 
threaded  by  a  helper  or  unskilled  workman. 

We  have  found  it  excellent  practice  to   send  to  each  job  a 


MISCELLANEOUS  335 

box  each  of  short  pieces  of  pipe  in  sizes  1",  I1/!"  and  1%"  with 
both  ends  threaded.  These  may  be  laid  out  on  the  basement 
floor  in  a  place  conveniently  near  to  the  pipe  vise,  to  be  quickly 
measured  and  used  by  the  fitter  in  order  to  save  the  cutting 
of  short  measurements.  As  soon  as  the  vise  and  bench  are  in 
position  the  helper  should  arrange  all  fittings  on  the  floor  in 
rows  according  to  their  sizes  and  in  such  a  place  near  the  vise 
that  they  can  be  reached  rapidly  by  the  fitter.  A  pad  of  paper 
on  which  to  make  memoranda  of  measures  or  supplies  needed  from 
the  shop  should  be  tacked  up  close  to  the  work  bench. 

We  would  urge  the  advisability  of  making  plans  of  all  work, 
plans  which  will  show  in  a  general  way  the  sizes  of  pipe  and 
fittings  and  the  method  of  running  same  and  the  manner  of 
making  the  different  connections.  Such  plans  should  be  ad- 
hered to  by  the  fitter  as  closely  as  the  conditions  of  the  work 
will  permit. 

Adopt  a  system  for  handling  all  work  and  the  results  will 
show  time  and  labor  saved  and  increased  profits  accruing  from 
the  contracts. 

Bronzing,  Painting  and  Decoration 

There  are  some  few  facts  relating  to  the  bronzing  or  paint- 
ing of  radiators  or  radiating  surfaces  of  a  heating  plant  which 
the  steam  fitter  should  be  fully  posted  on  and  thoroughly  un- 
derstand. It  is  well  to  give  all  direct  radiators  or  exposed  pip- 
ing above  the  basement  a  priming  coat  of  paint  before  applying 
the  bronze,  as  the  bronze  will  then  cover  more  surface,  look 
brighter  and  retain  its  luster  for  a  longer  period  of  time. 
Where  gold  bronze  is  to  be  used,  a  priming  coat  of  yellow  ochre 
is  the  best  to  apply ;  where  aluminum  bronze  is  made  use  of  the 
priming  coat  should  be  white.  If  color  bronzes  are  desired,  the 
priming  coats  should  conform  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  tints 
of  the  bronze.  The  priming  coat  should  not  contain  oil  of  any 
kind,  but  should  be  mixed  with  japan  and  turpentine. 

One  pound  of  gold  bronze  will  cover  150  ft.  of  iron  sur- 
face not  primed  and  200  ft.  of  primed  surface.  Each  four  pounds 
of  gold  bronze  requires  one  gallon  of  liquid. 

As  one  pound  of  aluminum  bronze  powder  is  more  than  twice 


336     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

as  bulky  as  gold  bronze,  it  will  cover  more  than  double  the  sur- 
face, the  amount  varying  from  350  to  400  ft.  of  surface. 

Uncovered  basement  piping  should  be  painted  with  black 
japan  or  asphaltum  varnish. 

In  painting  the  piping  in  greenhouses,  do  not  use  tar  paints 
or  asphaltum,  as  the  odor  or  fumes  given  off,  when  heated,  will 
injure  the  plants.  The  best  policy  is  to  leave  unpainted  all 
greenhouse  piping.  However,  in  case  it  is  necessary,  use  lamp- 
black mixed  with  turpentine  and  a  very  little  boiled  linseed  oil. 

In  mixing  colors  to  harmonize  with  other  decorations,  the 
following  table  will  prove  useful  as  a  guide.  The  first  color 
named  in  each  combination  is  the  base  or  predominant  shade.  Re- 
member to  use  only  japan  and  turpentine  in  your  mixing. 

Gray:  Use  white  lead  and  lampblack. 

Buff :  Use  white  lead,  yellow  ochre  and  red. 

Orange:  Use  yellow  and  red. 

Snuff:  Use  yellow  and  Vandyke  brown. 

Pearl:  Use  white,  black  and  blue. 

Drab:  Use  white,  raw  and  burnt  umber;  or  white,  yellow 
ochre,  red  and  black. 

Fawn:  Use  white,  yellow  and  red. 

Flesh:  LTsc  white,  yellow  ochre  and  vermilion. 

Gold:  Use  white,  stone  ochre  and  red. 

Copper:  Use  red,  yellow  and  black. 

Lemon:  Use  white  and  yellow. 

Pea  Green:  Use  white  and  chrome  green. 

Bronze-Green:  Use  chrome  green,  black  and  yellow;  or  white, 
yellow  ochre,  red  and  black. 

In  tinting  use  nearly  as  much  of  the  base  or  first-named  color, 
as  is  desired  and  tint  with  the  following  named  or  supplementary 
colors. 

Colored  enameled  paints  for  the  decoration  of  radiators  may 
be  procured.  However,  we  advise  against  their  use,  as  they  tend 
to  subtract  from  the  efficiency  of  the  radiating  surfaces  by  filling 
and  sealing  the  pores  of  the  iron,  thus  making  necessary  a  larger 
amount  of  heating  surface  than  would  otherwise  be  required. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  remove  all  oil  or  grease  from  the 
surfaces  to  be  painted  or  bronzed. 


MISCELLANEOUS  337 


Guaranty 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  make  mention  of  and  comment  on  the 
above  term  as  used  verbally  or  written  in  contracts  by  the  heat- 
ing contractor.  While,  no  doubt,  the  man  who  is  doing  honest 
and  conscientious  work,  figuring  a  sufficiency  of  radiation  and 
plenty  of  boiler  power,  has  little  to  fear  from  the  employment 
of  this  word,  there  are  occasions  where  it  becomes  unwise  to  make 
use  of  it  in  a  heating  contract.  In  contracts  for  heating  work 
we  have  noted  many  times  the  words  "  I  guarantee  satisfaction," 
or  "  I  guarantee  to  give  you  a  satisfactory  job."  This  word 
"  satisfaction  "  employed  in  this  connection  is  apt  to  prove  a 
troublesome  one  and  a  contractor  is  making  a  great  mistake  when 
he  incorporates  it  in  a  heating  contract.  He  may  be  perfectly 
honest  in  his  intentions  to  give  the  owner  a  "  satisfactory  "  job 
and  may  go  to  extremes  in  his  endeavors  to  do  perfect  work  and 
satisfy  the  owner.  However,  it  leaves  a  loophole  for  the  sharp 
and  unscrupulous  man  to  crawl  into  and  although  the  job  may  be 
perfect  in  its  working  and  effectiveness  he  may  withhold  payment 
for  it  indefinitely  on  the  plea  that  he  is  not  satisfied. 

If  a  guaranty  is  included,  it  should  be  carefully  worded  to 
cover  certain  specific  things.  A  certain  temperature  in  each  room 
in  which  radiation  is  placed,  a  workmanlike  job,  a  boiler  or 
heater  to  be  of  sufficient  size  to  do  the  work  easily,  all  or  any 
one  of  these  conditions  may  be  safely  guaranteed  by  the  con- 
tractor who  does  good  work. 

Architects,  unwisely,  frequently  draw  up  specifications  in 
which  certain  conditions  are  set  forth  and  the  heating  contractor 
is  requested  to  sign  a  contract  of  which  these  specifications  become 
a  part.  He  should  refuse  to  affix  his  name  to  them  until  all  the 
circumstances  are  clearly  stated. 

Commercially  the  clause  "  70°  in  zero  weather  "  implies  that 
the  apparatus  must  be  of  sufficient  size  to  heat  a  certain  build- 
ing in  which  it  is  placed  to  this  degree  when  the  prevailing  tem- 
perature outside  the  building  stands  at  zero.  In  many  sections 
of  this  country  in  which  artificial  heat  is  required,  the  ther- 
mometer may  not  register  a  zero  weather  temperature  once  in 
five  years  or  more,  and  therefore  should  the  architect  or  owner 


338     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

resort  to  unprincipled  practice  the  heating  contractor  would  be 
compelled  to  wait  an  indefinite  time  for  payment. 

As  stated  in  a  former  chapter  of  this  book,  Prof.  Carpenter 
has  given  a  very  good  and  accurate  rule  for  summer  or  warm 
weather  tests  and  where  a  70°  clause  is  inserted  in  a  contract, 
there  should  be  a  reference  made  to  this  or  some  other  equally 
good  rule  governing  a  test  which  will  be  acceptable  alike  to  owner 
and  contractor. 

Quite  frequently  we  find  an  architect  or  owner  who  requires 
the  heating  contractor  to  give  a  bond  that  the  apparatus  when 
completed  will  perform  a  certain  work.  Where  a  bond  of  this 
nature  is  insisted  upon,  the  contractor  should  be  paid  in  full  the 
moment  his  work  is  finished.  We  have  always  regarded  the  fur- 
nishing of  a  bond  as  tending  to  operate  against  the  best  interests 
of  the  owner.  In  his  anxiety  to  have  the  work  completed  at  as 
low  a  price  as  possible,  he  may  accept  the  low  bid  of  a  con- 
tractor without  responsibility  or  reputation,  require  a  bond  from 
him  and  save  a  few  dollars  on  the  original  cost  of  the  contract. 
When  difficulty  arises,  as  is  quite  likely  in  such  cases,  and  it 
becomes  necessary  to  bring  suit,  the  expenses  incident  to  such 
action  more  than  offset  the  amount  originally  saved  and  the 
owner  has  the  further  trouble,  discomfort  and  expense  of  the  tem- 
porary maintenance  of  an  unsatisfactory  job.  Had  the  work 
been  awarded  to  a  contractor  of  experience  and  reputation  no 
such  trouble  would  be  experienced. 

It  would  seem  that  the  over-anxiety  of  some  heating  con- 
tractors to  secure  work  is  largely  responsible  for  many  of  the 
conditions  we  have  enumerated.  In  some  instances  they  seem 
willing  to  agree  to  anything  or  to  sign  any  document  in  order  to 
obtain  a  contract,  and  this  of  itself  should  furnish  a  danger 
signal  to  both  architect  and  owner,  as  the  responsible  man  will 
not  affix  his  name  or  agree  to  anything  which  he  cannot  con- 
sistently perform,  or  which  is  against  his  best  interests. 

In  examining  the  contracts  of  some  heating  contractors  of 
large  experience,  we  find  some  clauses  included  which  are  well 
worth  our  consideration.  In  connection  with  the  "  Acceptance  " 
clause  we  find  the  following: 

"  Upon  notification  from  us  that  the  work  herein  specified  is 


MISCELLANEOUS  339 

complete,  it  shall  be  promptly  inspected  and  accepted  or  rejected, 
so  that  our  man,  while  still  on  the  premises,  may,  without  delay, 
complete  it  or  remedy  any  defect  that  may  appear,  after  which 
you  are  to  give  said  man  written  acceptance  of  the  work  herein 
specified,  it  being  agreed  that  such  acceptance  is  not  a  waiver  of 
our  guaranties. 

"  If  not  inspected  immediately  on  completion,  the  apparatus 
will  be  left  in  your  charge,  and  our  responsibility  for  it  ceases. 

"  Failure  to  so  promptly  inspect  and  accept  or  reject  said 
work  shall  be  construed  as  an  acceptance  of  it,  and  shall  entitle 
us  to  payment  according  to  contract." 

Or  this: 

"  The  apparatus,  in  so  far  as  the  mechanical  work  thereof 
and  the  construction  of  the  same  are  concerned,  shall  be  considered 
as  accepted  immediately  upon  completion.  If  it  be  found  that  the 
same  does  not  comply  with  said  specifications,  notice  thereof  shall 
be  given  in  writing  immediately  to  the  heating  contractor. 

"  It  is  distinctly  understood  that  no  payments  or  part  thereof 
are  to  be  delayed  on  account  of  lack  of  cold  weather  in  which  to 
test  the  heating  apparatus,  as  the  guaranty  herein  contained  is 
binding  upon  the  heating  contractor  as  to  the  fulfillment  of  the 
contract.  It  is  further  understood  that  such  acceptance  shall  not 
be  deemed  a  waiver  of  our  guaranty  as  to  efficiency  of  the  heat- 
ing apparatus." 

As  to  the  forms  of  guaranties,  we  have  given  in  the  chapter 
on  "  Business  Methods  "  a  short  concise  form.  Some  others, 
which  in  certain  cases  cover  more  of  the  detail  of  the  work,  are 
as  follows : 

(a)  "  We  hereby  guarantee  that  the  apparatus  shall  be  noise- 
less in  operation,  of  ample  capacity  and,  under  proper  conditions 
of  firing  and  management,  to  be  capable  of  warming  all  rooms  in 
which  radiators  are  placed  to  --  degrees  in  coldest  weather. 

(b)  "  The  apparatus  is  guaranteed  for  a  period  of  one  year 
from  this  date  against  any  defects  of  workmanship  or  materials. 
Should    any    defect    or   deficiency   develop,    we    will,   upon    notice, 
make  good  such  defect  or  deficiency  at  our  expense." 

Or  this : 

"  When    the    apparatus    herein    proposed    to    be    furnished    is 


340     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

completed  in  accordance  with  the  conditions  hereof,  we  guarantee 
that  it  will  be  so  constructed  as  to  permit  steam  to  circulate  in  all 
its  parts  with  -  -  pressure  thereon,  or  any  higher  pressure ;  and 
that  the  said  apparatus  shall  be  capable  of  continuously  warm- 
ing all  parts  of  said  building  that  are  enumerated  in  Section  8 
of  this  proposal  (schedule  of  radiation  and  temperatures)  to  the 
temperature  mentioned  therein  when  the  outside  temperature  is 
-  degrees  below  zero;  further,  the  buildings  and  apparatus 
being  kept  in  repair,  and  the  apparatus  properly  operated,  there 
shall  be  no  snapping,  cracking  or  pounding  in  the  piping  or 
radiators.  We  further  guarantee  all  materials  furnished  shall  be 
free  from  all  defects  for  a  period  of  one  year  from  the  date  of  this 
instrument." 

Several  of  the  guaranties  examined  contain  this  or  a  similar 
clause : 

"  The  chimney  furnished  by  the  owner  shall  be  large  enough 
to  be  capable  of  passing  sufficient  air  to  insure  rapid  combustion 
of  fuel.  We  will  not  be  responsible  for  failure  of  apparatus  due 
to  insufficient  draught." 

A  steam  or  hot-water  heating  apparatus  or  a  ventilating 
apparatus  is  designed  to  secure  certain  results  under  certain  given 
conditions  and  these  should  be  clearly  stated  in  and  be  made  the 
subject  matter  of  all  conditions  and  guaranties  of  a  contract. 

Boiler  Explosions 

The  danger  arising  from  the  explosion  of  a  low-pressure 
cast-iron  steam  or  hot-water  heater  is  very  remote,  yet  it  is  a 
feature  which  causes  fear  in  the  mind  of  every  nervous  person 
whose  duty  it  is  to  attend  to  such  a  heater  or  to  be  in  any 
manner  brought  into  close  contact  with  it.  While  it  is  a  fact 
that  many  boilers  explode,  the  percentage  is  small,  even  consider- 
ing the  vast  number  of  boilers  used  for  generating  steam  for 
power  purposes  as  well  as  for  heating.  There  is  no  question  but 
that  excess  of  pressure  is  the  cause  of  all  explosions;  we  mean 
by  this,  excess  over  the  ability  of  the  boiler  to  stand.  For  in- 
stance, a  boiler  may  be  built  originally  to  withstand  a  pressure 
of  250  pounds,  but  through  frequent  scaling,  or  from  rupture, 
or  some  other  damaging  cause,  may  become  weakened  to  such  an 


MISCELLANEOUS  341 

extent  that  100  Ibs.  would  be  an  excess  of  pressure  for  it  to  carry 
with  safety. 

Low  water  in  such  a  boiler,  with  the  consequent  rapid  vapor- 
izing into  steam,  due  to  a  hot  fire,  would  cause  it  to  explode, 
and  were  the  explosion  to  occur  instantly  it  would  be  accom- 
panied with  disastrous  results.  If,  on  the  contrary,  there  were 
a  gradual  tearing  of  the  iron  at  the  weak  point  or  gradual  open- 
ing of  the  rupture,  no  very  great  damage  might  occur. 

Most  of  the  disastrous  explosions  of  heating  boilers  have 
occurred  where  boilers  of  the  tubular  (vertical  or  horizontal)  or 
fire-box  type  were  used  and  but  few  have  happened  with  cast-iron 
boilers. 

There  are  many  theories  as  to  the  causes  of  boiler  explosions, 
and  when  applied  to  boilers  employed  for  warming,  the  principal 
one  seems  to  be  that  the  explosion  is  caused  by  admitting  cold 
water  into  red-hot  boilers.  When  for  some  unaccountable  reason 
the  boiler  has  been  drained  or  the  water  in  it  lowered  well  below 
the  crown-sheet  surface,  the  sudden  admission  of  a  quantity  of 
cold  water  will  cause  trouble;  not  necessarily  an  explosion,  for 
we  do  not  believe  this  would  be  the  result  once  in  ten  times.  If 
a  cast-iron  boiler,  the  sections  would  undoubtedly  crack;  if  a 
wrought-iron  boiler,  a  rupturing  of  the  plates  and  riveting  would 
likely  result,  requiring  in  either  case  extensive  repairs. 

We  have  alluded  especially  to  steam  boilers  as  being  liable 
to  explode  under  certain  conditions,  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
most  dangerous  explosions  of  heating  apparatus  might  occur  with 
a  hot-water  system.  The  pent-up  or  stored  energy  in  a  hot-water 
apparatus  is  very  much  greater  than  that  from  steam  at  an  equal 
volume.  The  sudden  releasing  of  this  force,  due  to  a  break  in  the 
apparatus,  is  liable  to  cause  great  damage,  including  a  possible 
loss  of  life. 

Prevention  of  Explosions 

In  the  operation  of  a  steam-heating  apparatus  only  ordinary 
caution  is  necessary  to  prevent  a  rupture  or  explosion  of  the 
boiler,  provided  the  usual  safeguards  are  furnished  with  the  ap- 
paratus. These  safeguards  are,  first,  a  safety  valve  of  adequate 
size,  kept  operative  by  frequent  testing;  second,  the  providing  of 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

a  fusible  plug,  which  should  be  placed  at  a  point  just  below  the 
low  water-line  of  the  boiler,  that  is,  the  lowest  level  at  which  the 
water  may  stand  with  safety ;  third,  the  provision  of  a  sediment 
cock  at  a  low  point,  where  sediment  (mud,  sand,  etc.)  may  be 
frequently  drawn  from  the  boiler. 

Should  valves  be  placed  on  the  flow  and  return  pipes  at  the 
boiler,  they  must  be  used  with  caution.  Never  entirely  close  the 
valves  on  the  steam  main  without  checking  and  thereby  cooling 
the  fire.  Never  close  all  valves  on  the  return  pipes  while  the  valves 
on  steam-supply  pipes  are  open,  or  when  heat  is  on  the  building. 

We  have  known  cases  where  a  slothful  janitor  left  the  valves 
on  the  returns  closed,  with  the  result  that  the  rapid  condensing  of 
the  steam  and  collection  of  the  condensation  in  the  returns  low- 
ered the  water  in  the  boiler  below  the  level  of  safety. 

When  this  condition  occurs,  or  should  the  water  become  low 
from  any  other  cause,  do  not  open  the  valves  on  the  returns  and 
admit  the  water  of  condensation,  which  has  cooled,  and  do  not 
admit  any  other  supply  of  cold  water  until,  as  a  precautionary 
measure,  the  fire  has  been  dampened  or  drawn  and  the  boiler 
allowed  to  cool  for  two  hours. 

In  operating  a  hot-water  heating  apparatus  but  few  precau- 
tions are  necessary,  provided  the  contractor  in  erecting  the  work 
has  exercised  due  care.  There  should  be  no  valves  placed  on  the 
expansion-tank  connections.  The  tank  should  be  placed  in  a 
warm  room  in  order  that  these  connections  will  not  freeze.  If  of 
necessity  the  tank  must  be  located  in  a  cold  spot,  it  should  be 
circulated  in  a  manner  illustrated  in  a  previous  chapter  of  this 
book,  in  order  to  prevent  freezing.  With  the  tank  open  to  the 
atmosphere  the  attendant  of  a  hot-water  boiler  may  feel  ab- 
solutely safe  as  far  as  any  danger  or  damage  from  explosion  is 
concerned. 

Utilizing  Waste  Heat 

Wasted  heat  units  in  the  process  of  heating  or  manufacturing 
often  represent  an  expense  for  fuel,  which,  if  saved,  would  ma- 
terially lessen  the  cost  of  production  and  add  to  the  profits  of  the 
business.  Many  of  our  readers  are  no  doubt  more  or  less  familiar 
with  the  old  methods  of  heating  dryers,  dry  kilns,  etc.,  by  the 
use  of  steam  coils. 


MISCELLANEOUS  343 

The  waste  of  heat  in  an  ordinary  heating  apparatus,  due  to 
poor  draught  or  an  imperfect  chimney,  we  have  commented  upon 
and  shown  the  advantages  and  saving  accruing  from  perfect  com- 
bustion and  a  properly  constructed  chimney.  We  have  also 
shown  the  benefit  resulting  from  the  use  of  the  exhaust  steam 
from  engines,  pumps,  etc.  In  this  chapter  we  wish  to  make 
mention  of  the  saving  effected  by  a  proper  use  of  fans. 

The  trouble  encountered  in  using  the  old  style  of  dryer  and 
heat  from  steam  coils  was  principally  due  to  the  slow  and  often 
uncertain  movement  of  the  air  in  the  dryer.  In  drying  lumber, 
bricks  and  pottery  the  circulation  of  air  is  as  important  as  the 
heat  provided.  The  same  is  true  regarding  the  drying  of  manu- 
factured wooden  articles,  of  laundry  and  all  the  various  woolen 
and  cotton  products.  High  temperatures  are  maintained  in  the 
dry-room  or  kiln  and  under  the  original  methods  of  drying  by 
steam  the  hotter  the  dry-room  the  quicker  and  the  cheaper  the 
desired  results  could  be  obtained. 

The  character  of  the  work,  that  is  to  say,  the  nature  of  the 
material  to  be  dried  and  the  temperature  necessary  to  be  main- 
tained govern  the  method  of  installing  the  apparatus.  There  are 
two  general  methods  of  utilizing  waste  heat  for  this  purpose,  the 
first,  the  utilizing  of  exhaust  steam  in  heating  coils  within  the 
dryer,  air  being  forced  into  and  through  it  by  a  pulley-driven 
fan  located  at  one  end  of  the  dryer.  The  second  is  that  which 
is  adapted  for  the  drying  of  bricks  or  pottery,  where  the  waste 
heat  from  cooling  kilns  is  drawn  through  ducts  to  a  fan,  which 
in  turn  delivers  it,  in  such  quantities  as  desired,  to  the  dryer. 
An  exhaust  fan  is  located  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  dryer  to 
facilitate  the  movement  of  the  air. 

To  illustrate  this  method  we  have  chosen  the  apparatus  as 
designed  by  the  New  York  Blower  Company  and  show  by  Fig. 
303  an  elevation  plan  and  by  Fig.  304  a  ground-floor  plan  of 
the  same.  There  are  so  many  adaptations  of  this  method  that  it 
is  not  convenient  to  illustrate  or  discuss  all  of  them. 

When  no  waste  heat  is  available,  an  ordinary  type  of  pipe 
heater  may  be  used  with  a  blower  fan  and  exhaust  steam  used  in 
the  heater. 

On  many  jobs  a  large  proportion  of  the  heat  units  from  the 


344     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


MISCELLANEOUS 


345 


coal  consumed  will  be  lost  in  the  chimney  flue,  the  amount  of  loss 
being  dependent  on  the  character  of  the  boiler,  as  some  boilers 


COMBINATION 

WASTE  HEAT 

STEAM  AND  FURNACE 

BRICK  DRYER 


FIG.  304.  —  Ground-floor  plan  waste-heat  utilizer. 


have  more  of  a  direct  draught  than  others  and  consequently  lose 
more  of  the  heat  units  from  the  fuel  consumed.     It  is  true  that 


346     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

a  certain  percentage  of  this  loss  is  necessary — the  chimney  must 
be  provided  with  sufficient  heat  to  expand  the  air  in  the  flue  and 
to  produce  sufficient  draught  in  the  same. 

There  are  several  methods  of  utilizing  the  heat  units  ordi- 
narily wasted  in  this  manner.  The  hot  smoke  and  gases  may  be 
passed  through  the  flues  of  a  cylindrical  jacket  or  water  heater, 
thus  warming  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  for  domestic  pur- 
poses. Again,  they  may  pass  through  a  supplementary  casing 
under  the  ordinary  type  of  hot-water  storage  tank,  the  smoke 
and  gases  entering  this  compartment  at  one  end  of  the  tank  and 
leaving  the  compartment  at  the  opposite  end.  It  is  a  fact  in 
heating  practice  that  the  hotter  the  return  water,  the  more  easily 
it  is  reheated  by  the  boiler  and  circulated,  if  a  hot-water  appa- 
ratus, or  generated  into  steam,  if  a  steam-heating  apparatus. 

The  smoke  and  hot  gases  usually  wasted  may  be  utilized  in 
heating  the  return  water  on  a  steam  job  by  returning  the  con- 
densation through  a  heater  having  large  flues  through  which  the 
hot  gases  pass  en  route  to  the  chimney,  thus  adding  to  the  capac- 
ity of  the  boiler  and  accomplishing  at  the  same  time  a  material 
saving  in  fuel. 

While  to  a  certain  extent  mechanical  methods  of  drying  and 
utilizing  waste  heat,  or  the  reheating  of  return  water,  have  no 
particular  bearing  on  general  steam-fitting  practice,  it  is  well  to 
become  familiar  with  the  various  methods  employed  in  this  direc- 
tion. 


CHAPTER    XXVIII 

Holes,  Tables,  and  Other  Information 

THE  author  has  selected  the  following  information  and  tables 
from  a  large  mass  of  data  gathered  from  all  reliable  sources,  as 
being  of  value  to  the  steam  fitter  and  heating  contractor. 

While  we  cannot  in  every  case  guarantee  the  correctness  of 
the  data  given,  we  believe  all  the  information  to  be  fully  reliable, 
as  it  has  been  compiled  from  standard  authorities  and  by  men 
of  practical  experience. 

As  we  have  previously  remarked  in  the  pages  of  this  book, 
there  is  no  rule  but  what  must  be  applied  with  judgment,  as 
existing  conditions  necessarily  govern  its  application.  Where  this 
care  is  exercised  the  information  given  will  prove  of  very  great 
value  and  assistance  to  the  practical  steam  fitter. 

Rules,  Tables,  and  Useful  Information 

A  U.  S.  gallon  weighs  8.331  Ibs.  and  contains  231  cubic  inches 
or  .13667  cubic  feet. 


224  gallons  of  pure  water  weigh  one  ton ;  13.44  gallons  weigh 
100  Ibs. 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  at  a  temperature  of  32°  Fahr.  weighs 
62.418  Ibs.;  at  212°  Fahr.  it  weighs  59.76  Ibs. 


The  expansion  of  water  from  32°  Fahr.  (freezing)  to  212° 
Fahr.  (boiling)  is  one  gallon  in  each  twenty-three,  or  approxi- 
mately 4-^. 

Water  boils  in  vacuum  at  98°  Fahr,  at  sea  level  at  212°  Fahr. 

347 


348     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

In  figuring  weight  of  water  its  bulk  or  quantity  is  considered. 
In  determining  pressure,  the  height  of  its  column  (vertical)  is 
figured,  approximately  */2  Ik.  ^or  eacn  f°°t  °f  height. 


A  column  of  water  one  foot  high  equals  a  pressure  of  .433  Ib. 
per  square  inch.  A  pressure  of  1  Ib.  per  square  inch  equals  2.31 
feet  of  water  in  height. 

Water  transformed  into  steam  expands  1,700  times  its  vol- 
ume. One  cubic  inch  of  water  will  produce  approximately  one 
cubic  foot  of  steam. 

To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  a  cylindrical  tank,  multiply 
the  diameter  of  the  tank  in  inches  by  itself,  this  by  the  height 
of  tank  in  inches  and  the  result  by  .34. 


A  pound  of  anthracite  coal  contains  about  14,500  heat  units. 


A  bushel  of  anthracite  coal  weighs  about  86  Ibs.     A  ton  of 
anthracite  contains  about  40  cubic  feet. 


A  bushel  of  bituminous  coal  weighs  about  76  Ibs.     A  ton  of 
bituminous  contains  about  49  cubic  feet. 


The  average   consumption   of  fuel  in   a  power   boiler  is 
pounds  of  coal  or   15  pounds  of  dry  pine  wood  for  each  cubic 
foot  of  water  evaporated. 

One  square  foot  of  grate  (tubular  boiler)  will  with  natural 
draught  consume  12  pounds  of  anthracite  or  20  pounds  of  bitu- 
minous coal  per  hour.  Double  this  amount  can  be  burned  with 
forced  draught. 

Each  nominal  Horse  Power  in  a  tubular  boiler  requires  1 
cubic  foot  of  water  per  hour. 


RULES,    TABLES,    AND    OTHER    INFORMATION     349 

Condensing  engines  require  from  20  to  25  gallons  of  water 
to  condense  the  steam  from  one  gallon  of  water. 


In  calculating  Horse  Power  of  tubular  or  flue  boilers,  15 
square  feet  of  heating  surface  is  equivalent  to  one  nominal  Horse 
Power. 

The  specific  gravity  of  steam  at  atmospheric  pressure  is  .411 
that  of  air  at  34°  Fahr.,  and  .0006  that  of  water  at  the  same 
temperature. 

To  determine  necessary  surface  in  square  feet  for  aspirating 
coil  in  ventilating  flue,  divide  the  cubic  feet  of  air  to  be  moved 
per  hour  by  .95  when  steam  is  used,  or  .60  when  hot  water. 


To  find  capacity  of  expansion  tank  required,  multiply  the 
square  feet  of  radiation  by  .03  if  less  than  1,000  sq.  ft.  Mul- 
tiply by  .025  between  1,000  and  2,000  sq.  ft.  and  by  .02  if 
more  than  2,000  sq.  ft.  The  result  will  be  the  size  in  gallons. 


To  find  the  length  of  pipe  required  when  making  an  offset 
with  45°  fittings,  a  simple  rule  is  as  follows:  For  each  inch  of 
offset  add  if  of  an  inch  and  the  result  will  be  the  center-to- 
center  measurement  of  the  45°  angle. 


Twelve  pounds  of  air  are  required  to  supply  oxygen  enough 
to  burn  one  pound  of  coal. 

Air  expands  one-one  hundred  and  seventy-ninth  of  its  bulk. 


The  velocity  of  hot  air  from  a  furnace  is  approximately  10 
feet  per  second  at  the  register,  with  ordinarily  good  circulation. 


To  find  the  circumference  of  a  circle  multiply  the  diameter  by 
3.1414  or  b     3 


350     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

To  find  the  diameter   of  a  circle  when  the  circumference  is 
given,  divide  the  circumference  by  4.14159. 


To  find  the  area  of  a  circle  multiply  .7854  by  the  square  of 
the  diameter,  that  is,  by  the  diameter  multiplied  by  itself. 


Cement  for  Steam  Boilers:  Red  or  white  lead  in  oil  four  parts, 
iron  borings  three  parts,  makes  a  soft  cement. 


Cement  for  Leaky  Boilers:  A  cement  for  leaky  boilers  (steam 
or  hot  water)  consists  of  two  parts  powdered  litharge,  two  parts 
of  fine  sand  and  one  part  of  slacked  lime.  Mix  with  linseed  oil 
and  apply  quickly. 

Rule  for  Calculating  Speed  and  Size  of  Pulleys 

To  Find  the  Size  of  Driving  Pulley:  Multiply  the  diameter 
of  the  driven  by  the  number  of  revolutions  it  shall  make  and 
divide  the  answer  by  the  revolutions  of  the  driver  per  minute. 
The  answer  will  be  the  diameter  of  the  driver. 


To  Find  the  Diameter  of  the  Driven  That  Shall  Make  a  Given 
Number  of  Revolutions:  Multiply  the  diameter  of  the  driver  by 
its  number  of  revolutions  and  divide  the  answer  by  the  number  of 
revolutions  of  the  driven.  The  answer  will  be  the  diameter  of  the 
driven. 

To  Find  the  Number  of  Revolutions  of  the  Driven  Pulley: 
Multiply  the  diameter  of  the  driver  by  its  number  of  revolutions 
and  divide  by  the  diameter  of  the  driven.  The  answer  will  be  the 
number  of  revolutions  of  the  driven. 


When  it  is  not  convenient  to  measure  with  the  tape  line  the 
length  required,  apply  the  following  rule:  Add  the  diameter  of 
the  two  pulleys  together,  divide  the  result  by  2,  and  multiply  the 


RULES,    TABLES,   AND    OTHER   INFORMATION     351 


quotient  by  3%,  then  add  this  product  to  twice  the  distance  be- 
tween the  centers  of  the  shafts,  and  you  have  the  length  required. 


The  working  adhesion  of  a  belt  to  the  pulley  will  be  in  pro- 
portion both  to  the  number  of  square  inches  of  belt  contact  with 
the  surface  of  the  pulley  and  also  to  the  arc  of  the  circumference 
of  the  pulley  touched  by  the  belt.  This  adhesion  forms  the  basis 
of  all  right  calculation  in  ascertaining  the  width  of  belt  necessary 
to  transmit  a  given  horse  power. 

TABLE   XXIX 

GAUGES  AND  THEIR  EQUIVALENTS 


No. 

27, 

equal 

to  ^ 

inch.                            No. 

1-2, 

equal 

to  A- 

inch. 

No. 

21, 

equal 

to  -h 

inch. 

No. 

10, 

equal 

to    £ 

inch. 

No. 

18, 

equal 

tO     & 

inch. 

No. 

8, 

equal 

to  & 

inch. 

No. 

16, 

equal 

to  fe 

inch. 

No. 

6, 

equal 

to  A 

inch. 

No. 

14, 

equal 

to  £, 

inch. 

No. 

5, 

equal 

to  3^ 

inch. 

No. 

13, 

equal 

to  £ 

inch. 

No. 

4, 

equal 

to    i 

inch. 

To  Find  Expansion  of  Pipe:  Deduct  the  temperature  of  pipe 
at  time  of  installation  from  the  maximum  temperature  to  which 
it  will  be  heated,  take  -ft-  of  this  difference  and  divide  by  100. 
The  result  will  equal  the  expansion  in  inches  for  each  100  lineal 
feet  of  pipe. 

To  Determine  the  Capacity  of  a  Cylinder  or  Round  Tank  in 
Gallons:  Square  the  diameter  and  multiply  by  the  length  of  the 
cylinder  and  this  product  by  .0034. 

Another  rule  is  to  multiply  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  in 
inches  by  itself,  this  product  by  the  length  in  inches,  and  the 
result  by  .34. 

To  Clean  Brass:  Mix  in  a  stone  jar  one  part  of  nitric  acid, 
and  one  half  part  of  sulphuric  acid.  Dip  the  brass  into  this  mix- 
ture, wash  in  water,  and  dry  in  sawdust.  If  greasy,  first  clean 
the  brass  by  dipping  in  a  strong  mixture  of  potash,  soda,  and 
water,  and  wash  thoroughly  in  water. 


352     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 

To  Remove  Stains  from  Marble:  Mix  two  parts  of  soda,  one 
of  ground  pumice,  and  one  of  finely-powdered  chalk.  Sift  through 
a  fine  sieve  and  with  water  mix  into  a  paste.  Rub  this  composi- 
tion on  the  marble  and  wash  with  soap  and  water. 


To  Remove  Grease  Stains  from  Marble:  Mix  one  and  one 
half  parts  of  soft  soap,  three  parts  of  fuller's  earth,  and  one  and 
one  half  parts  of  potash  with  boiling  water.  Cover  grease  spots 
with  this  mixture  and  allow  it  to  stand  twenty-four  hours,  after 
which  wash  with  hot  water. 


To  Remove  Rust  from  Steel:  Steel  which  has  been  rusted 
can  be  cleaned  by  brushing  with  a  paste  compound  of  %  oz. 
cyanide  of  potassium,  %  oz.  castile  soap,  1  oz.  whiting,  and  water 
sufficient  to  form  a  paste.  The  steel  should  be  washed  with  a 
solution  of  %  oz.  cyanide  of  potassium  in  £  oz.  of  water. 


To  Prevent  Machinery  from  Rusting:  Take  1  oz.  of  camphor 
and  dissolve  in  one  pound  of  melted  lard.  Remove  the  scum  and 
mix  enough  lamp-black  to  give  an  iron  color.  Clean  the  ma- 
chinery and  smear  it  with  the  mixture.  Under  ordinary  circum- 
stances it  will  not  rust  for  months. 


To  Harden  Cast  Iron:  Cast  iron  can  be  hardened  as  easily 
as  steel,  and  to  such  a  degree  of  hardness  that  a  file  will  not  touch 
it.  Take  one  half  pint  of  vitriol,  one  peck  of  salt,  one  half  pound 
of  saltpetre,  two  pounds  of  alum,  one  quarter  pound  prussic 
potash,  one  quarter  pound  of  cyanide  of  potash  and  dissolve  in 
ten  gallons  of  rain  water.  Stir  until  thoroughly  dissolved.  Heat 
the  iron  to  a  cherry  red  and  dip  it  into  the  solution.  If  the  iron 
needs  to  be  very  hard,  reheat  it  and  dip  a  second  or  a  third  time. 


To  Inscribe  Metal :  Cover  the  part  with  melted  beeswax ;  when 
cold,  write  what  you  desire  plainly  in  the  wax,  taking  care  that 
the  scriber  cleans  the  wax  from  the  metal.  Then  with  a  mixture 


RULES,    TABLES,    AND    OTHER    INFORMATION     353 

of  1/2  oz.  nitric  acid  and  1  oz.  of  muriatic  acid  carefully  fill  each 
letter  of  the  inscription.  For  this  service  a  feather  will  be  found 
to  be  very  adaptable.  Let  the  acid  remain  for  from  one  to  ten 
minutes  and  then  throw  on  water  to  arrest  the  action  of  the  acid. 
Remove  the  wax  by  heating  and  the  inscription  will  be  completed. 

TABLE  XXX 

MELTING  POINTS  OF  METALS 


Tin 446°  Brass 1,900° 

Bismuth 507°   Copper 1,996° 

Lead 617°  ,  Gold 2,066° 

Zinc 773°  Glass 2,377° 

Antimony 810° 

Aluminum 1,400° 


Steel 4,000' 

Cast  iron. .  2,250° 


Bronze 1,692°  |  Wrought  iron 2,912° 

Silver 1,873°  i  Platinum 3,080° 


TABLE  XXXI 

BOILING  POINTS  OF  FLUIDS 


Water  (Complete  Vacuum) 98°  Linseed  Oil 597' 

Water  (At  Sea  Level) 212°  ;  Mercury  (Atmospheric  Pressure) . .      676° 


Alcohol 173° 

Sulphuric  Acid 240° 

Refined  Petroleum 316° 

Turpentine 315° 

Sulphur 570° 


Ammonia 140° 

Coal  Tar 325° 

Olive  Oil 413° 

Sea  Water  (Average) 213° 


354    PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


TABLE  XXXII 

TABLES  OF  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


Liquid  Measure 


4  gills. 
2  pints. 


make  1 
"      1 


pint 
quart 


4  quarts make  1  gallon 

gallons "      1  oarrel 


Measures  of  Length 


4  inches ...  .  make  1  hand 


yards make  1  rod  or  pole 


7 .92 '.  /.':-..  1  link  40  poles 1  furlong 

18     "      1  cubit  8  furlongs 1  mile 

12      " 1  foot          G9y6  miles. 1  degree 

6  feet 1  fathom         60  geographical  miles  "  1  degree 

3  "    1  yard       1,760  yards  or  5,280  feet    "  1  mile 

Measures  of  Surface 

144  square  inches make   1  square  foot 

9  square  feet : square  yard 

30^  square  yards square  rod 

40  square  rods square  rood 

4  square  roods square  acre 

10  square  chains square  acre 

640  square  acres square  mile 

Cubic  Measures 

1,728  cubic  inches make  1  cubic  foot 

2,150 .42  cubic  inches 1  bushel 

46,656  cubic  inches 1  cubic  yard 

7,276 .5  cubic  inches 1  barrel 

27  cubic  feet 1  cubic  yard 

128  cubic  feet. 1  cord 

4 .21  cubic  feet 1  barrel 

Weight  of  Metals 

Lead 1  foot  square,  1  inch  thick,  weighs  59 . 06    pounds 

Copper 1    "          "1     "       "  "  45.3 

Cast  Iron 1    "          "1     "       "  "  37.54        " 

Wrought  Iron 1    "          "       1     "        "  "  40.5 

|  Cast  Steel 1    "  1  40.83       " 

Table  of  Weights  (avoirdupois} 

16  drams make  1  ounce  (oz.) 

16  ounces 1  pound  (Ib.) 

25  pounds 1  quarter  (qr.) 

4  quarters 1  hundred  (cwt.) 

20  cwt.  or  2,000  Ibs 1  net  ton 

The  gross  ton  is  2,240  pounds. 

Weights,  etc. 

One  Cubic  Inch  of  Cast  Iron  weighs 0 . 26     pound 

One  Cubic  Inch  of  Wrought  Iron  weighs 0 . 28     pound 

One  Cubic  Inch  of  Water  weighs 0 .36     pound 

One  United  States  Gallon  weighs 8 .33     pounds 

One  Imperial  Gallon  weighs '. 10 .00     pounds 

One  United  States  Gallon  equals 231 .00     cubic  inches 

One  Imperial  Gallon  equals 277 . 274  cubic  inches 

One  Cubic  Foot  of  Water  equals 7 .48    U.  S.  gallons 

One  Pound  of  Steam  equals 27 .222  cubic  feet 

One  Pound  of  Air  equals 13.817  cubic  feet 


RULES,    TABLES,    AND    OTHER   INFORMATION     355 


TABLE  XXXITI 


METRIC  SYSTEM 
Prefixes  of  Multiples  and  Sub-Multiples  of  Meter,  Liter,  and  Gram 

Deka  =10  Deci  =0.1 

Hecto=100  Centi=0.01 

Kilo    =1000  Milli  =0.001 

10  millimeters  =1  centimeter.  10  meters          =1  dekameter. 

10  centimeters  =1  decimeter.  10  dekameters  =1  hectometer. 

10  decimeters  =1  meter.  10  hectometers  =  1  kilometer. 


METRIC  EQUIVALENTS 
Linear  Measure 


1  centimeter  =0.3937  in. 

1  decimeter  =  3  .  937  in.  =  0  .  328  ft. 

1  meter  =39.  27  in.  =1.0936  yards. 

1  dekameter  =  1.9884  rods. 

1  kilometer  =0.62137  mile. 


1  in.  =2.54  centimeters  or  0.254  meter. 
1  ft.  =  3  .  048  decimeters  or  0  .  3048  meter. 
1  yard  =0.9144  meter. 
1  rod  =0.5029  dekameter. 
1  mile  =  1.6093  kilometers. 


1  sq.  centimeter  =  0.1 550  sq.  in. 

1  sq.  decimeter  =  0.1076  sq.  ft. 

1  sq.  meter  =  1.196  sq.  yd. 

1  are  =  3.954  sq.  rods. 

1  hektar  =  2.47  acres. 

1  sq.  kilometer  =  0.386  sq.  mile. 


Surface  or  Square  Measure 


sq.  inch  =  6.452  sq.  centimeters. 
sq.  foot  =  9.2903  sq.  decimeters. 
sq.  yard  =  0.8361  sq.  meter. 
sq.  rod  =  0.2529  are. 
1  sq.  acre  =  0.4047  hektar. 
sq.  mile  =  2.59  sq.  kilometers. 


1  cu.  centimeter  =0.061  cu.  in. 
1  cu.  decimeter  =0.0353  cu.  ft. 
1  cu.  meter  [  _  <  1.308  cu.  yards. 
1  ster  J   "  "(0.2759  cord.. 

1  liter  -J0-908  <luart  dl7- 
(  1.0567  quarts  liq. 

1  dekaliter  =  i*.  64 17  gallons. 
135  peck. 


Measure  of  Volume  and  Capacity 

1  cu.  inch  =16. 39  cu.  centimeters. 

1  cu.  foot  =28. 317  cu.  decimeters. 

1  cu.  yard  =0.7646  cu.  meter. 

1  cord  =3. 624  sters. 

1  quart  dry  =  1 . 101  liters. 

1  quart  liq.  =0.9463  liter. 

1  gallon  =0.3785  dekaliter. 

1  peck  =0.881  dekaliter. 


1  hectoliter  =2.  8375  bushels. 


1  gram  =0.0527  ounce. 

1  kilogram  =2.  2046  Ibs. 

1  metric  ton  =  1.1023  English  tons. 


1  bushel  =0.3524  hectoliter. 


Weights 


1  ounce  =28.35  grams. 

1  Ib.  =0.4536  kilogram. 

1  English  ton  =0.9072  metric  ton. 


II 


*S    1 
9     H  *1 

H    £  § 


S^ 


Ml 


SS.S 


m 


n  n  i**  te  o  t»  a.  oo  *Q  oo  49  tt.o  i-*  ^  <M  Q  •••<  <0*  ^p 

Xiol^HrHrHr^C^rHr^  r-lO*O*CO^'O*<^r-lf-l 


^p  GO  Q  at  it* 


a*"f<C'i!>OOC5O5»-'5C5OMi—  i  <—  i  *f»  i-i  «5  ^f< 
4  O9  ft  &  ^  99  O#  Oft  ^  0*  «9  O9  60  «  ^  »Q  09  IM 


•mra    55 


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356 


RULES,    TABLES,   AND    OTHER   INFORMATION     357 


TABLE  XXXV 

COMPARISON  OF  THERMOMETRIC  SCALES 


Fahr- 
enheit. 

Centi- 
grade. 

Reaumur. 

Fahr- 
enheit. 

Centi- 
grade. 

Reaumur. 

-    40 

-    40.00 

-   32.00 

+  125 

+  51.67 

+  41.33 

"    35 

"    37.22 

"    29.78 

"130 

"    54.44 

"    43.56 

"    30 

"    34.44 

"    27.56 

"135 

"    57.22 

"    45.78 

"    25 

"    31.67 

"    25.33 

"140 

"    60.00 

"    48.00 

"    20 

"    28.89 

"    23.11 

"145 

"    62.78 

"    50.22 

"    15 

"    26.11 

"    20.89 

"150 

"    65.55 

"    52.44 

"    10 

"    23.33 

"    18.67 

"155 

"    68.33 

"    54.67 

5 

"    20.55 

"    16.44 

"160 

"    71.11 

"    56.89 

0 

"    17.78 

"    14.22 

"165 

"    73.89 

"    59.11 

+     5 

"    15.00 

"    12.00 

"170 

"    76.67 

"   61.33 

"    10 

"    12.22 

"      9.78 

"  175 

"    79.44 

"    63.56 

"    15 

"      9.44 

"      7.56 

"180 

"    82.22 

"    65.78 

"    20 

"      6.67 

"      5.33 

"185 

"    85.00 

"    68.00 

"    25 

"      3.89 

"      3.11 

"190 

"    87.78 

"    70.22 

"    30 

"      1.11 

"      0.89 

"195 

"    90.55 

"    72.44 

"    32 

0.0 

0.00 

"200 

"    93.33 

"    74.67 

"    35 

+     1.67 

+     1.33 

"205 

"    96.11 

"    76.89 

"    40 

"      4.44 

"      3.56 

"210 

"    98.89 

"    79.11 

"    45 

"      7.22 

"      5.78 

"212 

"100.00 

"    80.00 

"    50 

"    10.00 

"      8.00 

"250 

"121.10 

"    96.90 

"    55 

"    12.78 

"    10.22 

"300 

"148.89 

"119.20 

"    60 

"    15.55 

"    12.44 

"302 

"150.00 

"120.00 

"    65 

"    18.33 

"    14.67 

"350 

"176.66 

"141.40 

"   70 

"   21.11 

"    16.89 

"392 

"200.00 

"160.00 

"    75 

"    23.89 

"    19.11 

"464 

"240.00 

"192.00 

"    80 

"    26.67 

"    21.33 

"500 

"260.00 

"208.00 

"    85 

"    29  .  44 

"    23.56 

"572 

"300.00 

"240.00 

"    90 

"    32.22 

"    25.78 

"600 

"315.06 

"252.40 

"    95 

"    35.00 

"    28.00 

"662 

"350.00 

"280.00 

"  100 

"    37.78 

"    30.22 

"700 

"371.11 

"296.90 

"105 

"    40.55 

"    32.44 

"752 

"400.00 

"320.00 

"110 

"    43.33 

"    34.67 

"800 

"426.66 

"341.30 

"  115 

"    46.11 

"    36.89 

"932 

"500.00 

"400.00 

(f  120 

"    48.89 

"   39.11 



358     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


TABLE  XXXVI 

TABLE  OF  THE  AREAS  OF  CIRCLES  AND  OF  THE  SIDES  OF  SQUARES  OF  THE  SAME  AREA 


Diam- 
eter of 
Circle 
in 
inches. 

Area  of 
Circle  in 
square 
inches. 

Sides  of 
Sq.  of 
same 
area  in 
square 
inches. 

Diam- 
eter of 
Circle 
in 
inches. 

Area  of 
Circle  in 
square 
inches. 

Sides  of 
Sq.  of 
same 
area  in 
square 
inches. 

Diam- 
eter of 
Circle 
in 
inches. 

Area  of 
Circle  in 
square 
inches. 

Sides  of 
Sq.  of 
same 
area  in 
square 
inches. 

1 

.785 

.89 

21 

346.36 

| 
18.61 

41 

1,320.26 

36.34 

y* 

1.767 

1.33 

y2 

363.05 

19.05 

H 

1,352.66 

36.78 

2 

3.142 

1.77 

22 

380.13 

19.50 

42 

1,385.45 

37.22 

M 

4.909 

2.22 

y2 

397.61 

19.94 

H 

1,418.63 

37.66 

3 

7.069 

2.66 

23 

415.48 

20.38 

43 

1,452.20 

38.11 

y2 

9.621 

3.10 

H 

433.74 

20.83 

1A 

1,486  .  17 

38.55 

4 

12.566 

3.54 

24 

452.39 

21.27 

44 

1,520.53 

38.99 

y2 

15.904 

3.99 

y2 

471.44 

21.71 

1A 

1,555.29 

39.44 

5 

19.635 

4.43 

25 

490.88 

22.16 

45 

1,590.43 

39.88 

y2 

23.758 

4.87 

y2 

510.71 

22.60 

H 

1,625.97 

40.32 

6 

28.274 

5.32 

26 

530.93 

23.04 

46 

1,661.91 

40.77 

l/2 

33.183 

5.76 

H 

551.55 

23.49 

y2 

1,698.23 

41.21 

7 

38.485 

6.20 

27 

572.56 

23.93 

47 

1,734.95 

41.65 

y2 

44.179 

6.65 

y2 

593.96 

24.37 

y2 

1,772.06 

42.10 

8 

50.266 

7.09 

28 

615.75 

24.81 

48 

1,809.56 

42.58 

y2 

56.745 

7.53 

H 

637.94 

25.26 

H 

1,847.46 

42.98 

9 

63.617 

7.98 

29 

660.52 

25.70 

49 

1,885.75 

43.43 

H 

70.882 

8.42 

H 

683.49 

26.14 

y2 

1,924.43 

43.87 

10 

78.540 

8.86 

30 

706.86 

26.59 

50 

1,963.50 

44.31 

H 

86.590 

9.30 

y2 

730.62 

27.03 

y2 

2,002.97 

44.75 

11 

95.03 

9.75 

31 

754.77 

27.47 

51 

2,042.83 

45.20 

H 

103.87 

10.19 

y2 

779.31 

27.92 

y2 

2,083.08 

45.64 

12 

113.10 

10.63 

32 

804.25 

28.36 

52 

2,123.72 

46.08 

H 

122.72 

11.08 

y2 

829.58 

28.80 

y2 

2,164.76 

46.53 

13 

132.73 

11.52 

33 

855.30 

29.25 

53 

2,206.19 

46.97 

y2 

143.14 

11.96 

y2 

881.41 

29.69 

y2 

2,248.01 

47.41 

14 

153.94 

12.41 

34 

907.92 

30.13 

54 

2,290.23 

47.86 

y2 

165.13 

12.85 

y2 

934.82 

30.57 

y2 

2,332.83 

48.30 

15 

176.72 

13.29 

35 

962.11 

31.02 

55 

2,375.83 

48.74 

y2 

188.69 

13.74 

1A 

989.80 

31.46 

y2 

2,419.23 

49.19 

16 

201.06 

14.18 

36 

1,017.88 

31.90 

56 

2,463.01 

49.63 

H 

213.83 

14.62 

1A 

1,046.35 

32.35 

y2 

2,507.19 

50.07 

17 

226.98 

15.07 

37 

1,075.21 

32.79 

57 

2,551.76 

50.51 

H 

240.53 

15.51 

y2 

1,104.47 

33.23 

y2 

2,596.73 

50.96 

18 

254.47 

15.95 

38 

1,134.12 

33.68 

58 

2,642.09 

51.40 

y2 

268.80 

16.40 

y2 

1,164.16 

34.12 

y2 

2,687.84      51.84 

19 

283.53 

16.84 

39 

1,194.59 

34.56 

59 

2,733.98      52.29 

H 

298.65 

17.28 

y2 

1,225.42 

35.01 

y2 

2,780.51 

52.73 

20 

314.16 

17.72 

40 

1,256.64 

35.45 

60 

2,827.74 

53.17 

H 

330.06 

18.17 

H 

1,288.25 

35.89 

y2 

2,874.76      53.62 

RULES,    TABLES,    AND    OTHER    INFORMATION      359 


TABLE  XXXVH 

TEMPERATURE  OF  STEAM  AT  VARIOUS  PRESSURES  ABOVE  THAT  OF  THE 
ATMOSPHERE  (14.7  LBS.) 


Pounds 
Pressure. 

Degrees 
Fahrenheit. 

Pounds 
Pressure. 

Degrees 
Fahrenheit. 

Pounds 
Pressure. 

Degrees 
Fahrenheit. 

0 

212 

18 

254.5 

100 

337.5 

1 

215.5 

19 

256 

105 

341 

2 

219 

20 

257.5 

115 

347 

3 

222 

25 

265 

125 

353 

4 

225 

30 

272.5 

135 

358 

5 

227.5 

35 

279.5 

145 

363 

6 

230 

40 

285.5 

155    ' 

368 

7 

232.5 

45 

291 

165 

373 

8 

235 

50 

297 

175 

377 

9 

237.5 

55 

302 

185 

381 

10 

240 

60 

307 

235 

401 

11 

242 

65 

311 

285 

417 

12 

244 

70 

315 

335 

430 

13 

246 

75 

320 

385 

445 

14 

248 

80 

323 

435 

456 

15 

250 

85 

327 

485 

467 

16 

252 

90 

331 

585 

487 

17 

253.5 

95                    334 

685 

504 

TABLE  XXXVIII 

PROPERTIES  OF  SATURATED  STEAM 


Pres- 
sure. 

Abso- 
lute 
Pres- 
sure. 

Tem- 
perature 
Fahren- 
heit. 

Total  Heat  above 
32  degrees. 

Latent 
Heat. 

Relative 
Volume 
39°  =1. 

Volume 
C.  F. 
in  1  Ib. 
Steam. 

Weight 
1  cubic 
foot 
Steam. 
Lbs. 

Heat  Units 
in  the 
Water. 

Heat  Units 
in  the 
Steam. 

0.0 

14.7 

212.0 

180.9 

1,146.6 

965.7 

1,646.0      26.36 

.03794 

1.3 

16.0 

216.3 

185.3 

,147.9 

962  .  7 

1,519.0      24.33 

.04110 

2.3 

17.0 

219.4 

188.4 

,148.9 

960.5 

1,434.0      22.98 

.04352 

3.3 

18.0 

222.4 

191.4 

,149.8 

958.3 

1,359.0      21.78 

.04592 

4.3 

19.0 

225.2 

194.3 

,150.6 

956.3 

1,292.0      20.70 

.04831 

5.3 

20.0 

227.9 

197.0 

,151.5 

954.4 

1,231.0 

19.72 

.05070 

10.3 

25.0 

240.0 

209.3 

,155.1 

945.8 

998.4 

15.99 

.06253 

15.3 

30.0 

250.2 

219.7 

,158.3 

938.9 

841.3 

13.48 

.07420 

20.3 

35.0 

259.2 

228.8 

,161.0 

932.2 

727.9 

11.66 

.08576 

25.3 

40.0 

267.1 

236.9 

,163.4 

926.5 

642.0 

10.28 

.09721 

30.3 

45.0 

274.3 

244.3 

1,165.6 

921.3 

574.7 

9.21 

.1086 

40.3 

55.0 

286.9 

257.2 

1,169.4 

912.3 

475.9 

7.63 

.1311 

50.3 

65.0 

297.8 

268.3 

1,172.8 

904.5 

406.6 

6.53 

.1533 

60.3 

75.0 

307.4 

278.2 

1,175.7 

897.5 

355.5 

5.71 

.1753 

70.3 

85.0 

316.0 

287.0 

1,178.3 

891.3 

315.9 

5.07 

.1971 

80.3 

95.0 

323.9 

295.1 

1,180.7 

885.6 

284.5 

4.57 

.2188 

90.3 

105.0 

331.1 

302.6 

1,182.9 

880.3 

258.9  i     4.16 

.2403 

100.3 

115.0 

337.8 

309.5 

1,185.0 

875  .5 

237.6        3.82 

.2617 

125.3 

140.0 

352.8         325.0 

1,189.5 

864.6 

197.3 

3.18 

.3147 

150.3 

165.0 

365.7         338.4 

1,193.5 

855.1 

169.0 

2.72 

.3671 

200.3      215.0 

387.7         361.3 

1,200.2 

838.9 

131.5 

2.12 

.4707 

360     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


TABLE  XXXIX 

MATERIALS  FOR  BRICKWORK  OF  TUBULAR  BOILERS 


Boilers. 

Common 
Brick. 

Fire  Brick. 

Sand, 
Bushels. 

Cement, 
Barrels. 

Fire  Clay, 
Pounds. 

Lime, 
Barrels. 

Single  Setting 

30in.x  8ft. 

5,200 

320 

42 

5 

192 

2 

30  in.  x  10  ft. 

5,800 

320 

46 

51A 

192 

2% 

36in.x  8ft. 

6,200 

480 

50 

6 

288 

*% 

36in.x  9ft. 

6,600 

480 

53 

61A 

288 

2% 

36  in.  x  10  ft. 

7,000 

480 

56 

7 

288 

3 

36  in.  x  12  ft. 

7,800 

480 

62 

8 

288 

3% 

42  in.  x  10  ft. 

10,000 

720 

80 

10 

432 

4 

42  in.  x  12  ft. 

10,800 

720 

86 

11 

432 

414 

42  in.  x  14  ft. 

11,600 

720 

92 

11% 

432 

4^2 

42  in.  x  16  ft. 

12,400 

720 

99 

12^ 

432 

5 

48  in.  x  10  ft. 

12,500 

980 

100 

1«H 

590 

SH 

48  in.  x  12  ft. 

13,200 

980 

108 

1SH 

590 

51A 

48  in.  x  14  ft. 

14,200 

980 

116 

14^ 

590 

5% 

48  in.  x  16  ft. 

15,200 

980 

124 

15H 

590 

6 

54  in.  x  12  ft. 

13,800 

1,150 

108 

13% 

690 

51A 

54  in.  x  14  ft. 

14,900 

,150 

117 

15 

690 

6 

54  in.  x  16  ft. 

16,000 

,150 

126 

16 

690 

6% 

60  in.  xlOft. 

13,500 

,280 

108 

1SH 

768 

&A 

60  in.  x  12  ft. 

14,800 

,280 

118 

14% 

768 

6 

60  in.  x  14  ft. 

16,100 

,280 

128 

16 

768 

&A 

60  in.  x  16  ft. 

17,400 

,280 

140 

17H 

768 

60  in.  x  18  ft. 
66  in.  x  16  ft. 

18,700 
19,700 

,280 
,400 

148 
157 

18% 

19% 

768 
840 

VA 

8 

66  in.  x  18  ft. 

21,000 

,400 

168 

21 

840 

8^ 

72  in.  x  16  ft. 

20,800 

,550 

166 

20% 

930 

8^ 

72  in.  x  18  ft. 

22,000 

,550 

175 

22 

930 

9 

Two  Boilers  in 

a  Battery 

30  in.  x  8ft. 

8,900 

640 

70 

9 

384 

3^ 

30  in.  x  10ft. 

9,600 

640 

76 

9^ 

384 

4 

36in.x  8ft. 

10,500 

960 

84 

wy2 

576 

4% 

36in.x  9ft. 

11,100 

960 

88 

11 

576 

4^ 

36  in.  x  10  ft. 

11,800 

960 

95 

12 

576 

4% 

36  in.  x  12  ft. 

13,000 

960 

104 

13 

576 

5% 

42  in.  x  10  ft. 

17,500 

1,440 

140 

17H 

864 

7 

42  in.  x  12  ft. 

18,600 

1,440 

148 

isy2 

864 

7^ 

42  in.  x  14  ft. 

19,900 

1,440 

159 

20 

864 

8 

42  in.  x  16  ft. 

21,200 

1,440 

168 

21 

864 

8^ 

48  in.  x  10  ft. 

21,400 

1,960 

170 

21H 

1,180 

8% 

48  in.  x  12  ft. 

22,300 

1,960 

178 

22% 

1,180 

9 

48  in.  x  14  ft. 

23,900 

1,960 

190 

24 

1,180 

VA 

48  in.  x  16  ft. 

25,100 

1,960 

200 

25 

1,180 

10 

54  in.  x  12  ft. 

23,300 

2,300 

186 

23% 

1,380 

9% 

54  in.  x  14  ft. 

24,800 

2,300 

198 

25 

1,380 

10 

54  in.  x  16  ft. 

26,300 

2,300 

210 

26% 

1,380 

10^ 

60  in.  x  10  ft. 

22,600 

2,560 

180 

22V£ 

1,536 

9  " 

60  in.  x  12  ft. 

24,800 

2,560 

198 

25 

1,536 

10 

60  in.  x  14  ft. 

26,800 

2,560 

214 

27 

1,536 

10% 

60  in.  x  16  ft. 

28,900 

2,560 

230 

29 

,536 

11}  2 

60  in.  x  18  ft. 

31,000 

2,560 

248 

31 

,536 

12^ 

66  in.  x  16  ft. 

33,100 

2,800 

264 

33 

,680 

13% 

66  in.  x  18  ft. 

36,500 

2,800 

276 

35 

,680 

14 

72  in.  x  16  ft. 

34,000 

3,100 

272 

34 

,860 

13% 

72  in.  x  18  ft. 

38,000 

3,100 

282 

36 

1,860 

15 

RULES,    TABLES,   AND    OTHER    INFORMATION     361 


TABLE  XL 

STANDARD  PIPE 
Extra  Strong 


Actual 

Nominal 

Nominal 

Size, 
Inches. 

Price 
per  Foot. 

Outside 
Diameter, 

Inside 
Diameter, 

Thickness, 
Inches. 

Weight, 
per  Foot, 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

X 

.11 

.405 

.205 

.100 

.29 

M 

.11 

.540 

.294 

.123 

.54 

^ 

.11 

.675 

.421 

.127 

.74 

1^ 

.12 

.840 

.542 

.149 

1.09 

M 

.15 

1.05 

.736 

.157 

1.39 

i 

.22 

1.315 

.951 

.182 

2.17 

i^€ 

.30 

1.66 

1.272 

.194 

3.00 

ij/o 

.36 

1.900 

1.494 

.203 

3.63 

2  " 

.50 

2.375 

1.933 

.221 

5.02 

2V4 

.81 

2.875 

2.315 

.280 

7.67 

3 

1.05 

3.500 

2.892 

.304 

10.25 

3V£ 

1.33 

4.000 

3.358 

.321 

12.47 

4' 

1.50 

4.500 

3.818 

.341 

14.97 

4^ 

1.95 

5.000 

4.280 

.360 

18.22 

5 

2.16 

5.563 

4.813 

.375 

20.54 

6 

2.90 

6.625 

5  750 

.437 

28.58 

7 

3.80 

7.625 

6.625 

.500 

37.67 

8 

4.30 

8.625 

7.625 

.500 

43.00 

Double  Extra  Strong 

Actual                Nominal 

Nominal 

Size, 

Price 

Outside 

Inside 

Thickness, 

Weight 

Inches. 

per  Foot. 

Diameter, 

Diameter, 

Inches. 

per  Foot, 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

M 

.25 

.84 

.244 

.298 

1.70 

M 

.30 

1.05 

.422 

.314 

2.44 

1 

.37 

1.315 

.587 

.364 

3:65 

IK 

.52 

1.66 

.885 

.388 

5.20 

1M 

.65 

1.90 

1.088 

.406 

6.40 

2 

95 

2.375 

1.491 

.442 

9.02 

2^o 

1.37 

2.875 

1.755 

.560 

13.68 

3 

1.92 

3.50 

2.284 

.608 

18.56 

33^> 

2.45 

4.00 

2.716 

.642 

22.75 

4  " 

2.85 

4.50 

3.136 

.682 

27.48 

4/"2 

3.30 

5.00 

3.564 

.718 

32.53 

5  ~ 

3.80 

5.563               4.063 

.750 

38.12 

6 

5.30 

6.625 

4.875 

.875 

53.11 

7 

6.25 

7.625                5.875                  .875 

62.38 

8 

7.20 

8.625                6.875 

.875 

71.62 

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363 


PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


TABLE  XLIII 

RELATION  BETWEEN  TEMPERATURE  OF  FEED  WATER  AND  EVAPORATIVE 
CAPACITY  OF  BOILER 


Temperature  of 
Feed  Water, 
Degrees  Fahr. 

Steam  Pressure, 
Pounds. 

Feed  Water  per 
Horse  Power  per 
Hour,  Pounds. 

Gallons  per  Minute  per  100  Horse 
Power. 

100 

70 

*30.00 

6.  02+  10  per  cent.  =  6.62 

70 

100 

29.04 

5.79+10           '       =6.36 

100 

100 

29.82 

5.98+10           '       =6.57 

150 

100 

31.22 

6.34+10           '       =6.97 

180 

100 

32.14 

6.61+10           '       =  7.27 

200 

100 

32.77 

6.65+10                  =  7.31 

212 

100 

33.17 

6.94+10           "     =  7.63 

*  This  is  the  standard  adopted  by  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical   Engineers,  and  is 
the  generally  accepted  commercial  standard  by  boiler  makers  and  users. 

The  evaporative  capacity  of  a  boiler  depends,  among  other 
things,  upon  the  steam  pressure  and  temperature  of  the  feed 
water.  The  pressure  makes  so  little  difference  that  it  has  been 
estimated  for  100  pounds  as  practically  correct  for  all  pressures. 
The  difference  between  making  steam  at  atmospheric  pressure  and 
100  pounds  pressure  is  only  Sy2  per  cent.  Changing  the  tem- 
perature of  the  feed  water  from  100  degrees  to  212  degrees  will 
vary  the  evaporative  capacity  of  a  boiler  over  11  per  cent. 

TABLE  XLIV 

QUANTITY  OF  FEED  WATER  REQUIRED  TO  SUPPLY  BOILER 


Horse  Power 
of  Boiler. 

Quantity  of  Feed  Water  Required. 

Temperature  of 
Feed  Water. 
Degrees  Fahr. 

Gallons  per  Minute. 

Pounds  per  Hour. 

50 

3.  60  to      4.20 

1,599  to      2,029 

100  to  212 

100 

6.  57  to      7.63 

3,285  to      3,815 

100  to  212 

200 

13.  14  to    15.26 

6,590  to      7,630 

100  to  212 

250 

16.  43  to    19.07 

8,215  to      9,535 

100  to  212 

300 

19  .  71  to    22  .  89 

9,855  to    11,445 

100  to  212 

400 

26.  28  to    30.52 

13,140  to    15,260 

100  to  212 

500 

32.  85  to    38.15 

16,425  to    19,075 

100  to  212 

600 

39.  42  to    45.78 

19,710  to    22,890 

100  to  212 

800 

52.  26  to    61.04 

26,280  to    30,520 

100  to  212 

1,000 

65.  70  to    76.30 

32,350  to    38,150 

100  to  212 

1,200 

78.  84  to    91.56 

39,420  to    45,780 

100  to  212 

1,500 

98.55  to  114.45 

49,275  to    57,225 

100  to  212 

1,800 

118.26  to  137.34 

59,130  to    68,670 

100  to  212 

2,200 

144.  50  to  167.80 

71,290  to    83,930 

100  to  212 

3,000 

197.10  to  228.90 

98,500  to  114,500 

100  to  21  2 

3,500 

229.95  to  267.  05 

114,975  to  133,525 

100  to  212 

4,500 

295.65  to  343.  35 

147,825  to  171,675 

100  to  212 

6,000 

394.  20  to  457.  80 

197,100  to  228,900 

100  to  212 

7,000 

459  .  90  to  534  .  10 

229,950  to  267,050 

100  to  212 

RULES,    TABLES,    AND    OTHER    INFORMATION      365 


TABLE  XLV 

VACUUM,  PRESSURE  AND  TEMPERATURE,  ETC. 


Vacuum 
measured  in 
inches  of 
Mercury. 

Absolute 
pressure  in 
inches  of 
Mercury. 

Absolute 
pressure  in 
Ibs.  per 
square  inch. 

Temperature 
of  boiling 
point.    Fahr. 

Latent  heat  of 
evaporation 
in  B.  T.  U. 

Sensible  heat  of 
Evaporation. 

29^2 

Y2 

.245 

59.1 

1072.8 

27.1 

29 

1 

.490 

79.3 

1058.8 

47.3 

28^ 

iy2 

.735 

92.0 

1049.9 

60.1 

28 

2 

.980 

101.4 

1044.4 

69.5 

27                   3 

1.470 

115.3 

1033.7 

83.4 

26 

4 

1.960 

125.6 

1026.5 

93.8 

25 

5 

2.450 

134.0 

1020.6 

102.2 

24 

6 

2.940 

141.0 

1015.7 

109.3 

23 

7 

3.430 

147.0 

1011.5 

115.3 

22 

8 

3.9-20 

152.3 

1007.8 

120.5 

21 

9 

4.410 

157.0 

1004.5 

125.4 

20 

10 

4.900 

161.5 

1001.3 

129  .  9 

19 

11 

5.390 

165.6 

998.4 

134.1 

18 

12 

5.880 

169.2 

995.9 

137.7 

17 

13 

6.370 

172.8 

993.4 

140.3 

16 

14 

6.860 

176.0 

991.1 

144.5 

15 

15 

7.350 

179.1 

988.8 

147.7 

14 

16 

7.840 

182.0 

986.9 

150.6 

12 

17 

8.820 

187.4 

983.1 

156.0 

10 

20 

9.800 

192.3 

979.6 

161.0 

5 

25 

12.25 

203.0 

972.1 

171.8 

0 

30 

14.70 

212.0 

965.7 

180.9 

366     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


TABLE  XLVI 

PUMP  DIAMETERS  AND  CAPACITIES  IN  GALLONS 


Diameter. 

Area 
Inches. 

Displacement 
in  Gals,  per 
Ft.  of  Travel. 

Diameter. 

Area 
Inches. 

Displacement 
in  Gals,  per 
Ft.  of  Travel. 

M 

.0129 

.0006 

8 

50.26 

2.548 

% 

.0490 

.0025 

8% 

53.45 

2,.  7739 

8 

.1104 

.0056 

®A 

56.74 

2.944 

1^3 

.1963 

.0101 

8% 

60.13 

3.0105 

^ 

.3068 

.0135 

9 

63.61 

3.2505 

% 

.4417 

.0228 

9/4 

67.20 

3.407 

% 

.6018 

.0311 

$1A 

70.88 

3.678 

i 

.7854 

.0407 

9% 

74.66 

3.874 

\y% 

.9940 

.0505 

10 

78.54 

3.997 

1% 

1.227 

.0624 

10% 

82.51 

4.281 

IT'S 

1.484 

.0629 

lOVo 

86.59 

4.493 

l/^ 

1.767 

.0896 

10% 

90.76 

4.708 

1^1 

2.073 

.1073 

11 

95.03 

4.931 

18 

2.405 
2.761 

.1237 
.1432 

"$ 

99.40 
103.8 

5.158 
5.386 

2 

3.141 

.1639 

11% 

108.4 

5.634 

2//8 

3.546 

.1839 

12 

113.0 

5.852 

2% 

3.970 

.2063 

12% 

117.8 

6.015 

4.430 

.2296 

12Mj 

122.7 

6.366 

2^2 

4.908 

.2545 

12% 

127.6 

6.620 

g^| 

5.411 

.2807 

13 

132.7 

6.884 

2% 

5.939 

.2948 

13% 

137.8 

7.149 

6.491                .3411 

18j| 

143.1 

7.254 

3 

7.068                .3667 

13% 

148.4 

7.688 

3//8 

7.669 

.3979 

14 

153.9 

7.966 

3% 

8.295 

.4304 

14% 

159.4 

8.270 

3^8 

8.946 

.4641 

14;M> 

165.1 

8.565 

8^8 

9.621 

.4992 

14% 

170.8 

8.874 

35^ 

10.32 

.5355 

15 

176.7 

9.167 

3% 

11.04 

.5728 

15% 

182.6 

9.474 

3j| 

11.79 

.5953 

188.6 

9.785 

4 

12.56 

.6522 

15% 

194.8 

10.098 

4% 

14.18 

.7356 

16 

201.0 

10.435 

15.90 

.8250 

16% 

207.3 

10.720 

4% 

17.72 

.9194 

16^2 

213.8 

11.079 

5 

19.63 

.9954 

16% 

220.3 

11.43 

5% 

21.54 

1  .  123 

17 

226.9 

11.775 

5% 

23.75 
25.96 

1.2035 
1.346 

17% 

ml 

233.7 
240.5 

12.125 
12.172 

6 

28.27 

1.433 

17% 

247.4 

12.838 

6^ 

30.67 

1.5915 

18 

254.4 

13.208 

6% 

33.18 
35.78 

1.6817 
1.8137 

18i| 

261.5 

268.8 

13.57 
13.975 

7 

38.48 

1  .  9965 

18% 

276.1 

14.375 

7% 

41.28 

2.1416 

19 

283.5 

14.711 

7^ 

44.17 

2.2958 

19% 

291.0 

15.10 

7% 

47.17 

2.4465 

19^2 

298.6 

15.55 

RULES,    TABLES,   AND    OTHER   INFORMATION      367 


TABLE  XLVH 

TABLE  OF  DECIMAL  EQUIVALENTS  OF  AN  INCH 
By  64ths;  from  l-64ih  to  1  Inch 


Fraction.           Decimal. 

Fraction. 

Decimal. 

A 

.015625 

ft 

.515625 

& 

.031250 

H 

.531250 

A 

.046875 

it 

.546875 

I1* 

.062500 

9 
It) 

.562500 

A 

.078125 

H 

.578125 

& 

.093750 

& 

.593750 

9< 

.109375 

If 

.609375 

* 

.  125000 

5. 

8 

.625000 

& 

.140625 

li 

.640625 

& 

.  156250 

H 

.656250 

H 

.  171875 

H 

.671875 

A 

.  187500 

H 

.687500 

if 

.203125 

t* 

.703125 

-3V 

.218750 

H 

.718750 

H 

.234375 

« 

.734375 

1 

.250000 

1 

.750000 

tt 

.265625 

« 

.765625 

A 

.281250 

If 

.781250 

3 

.296875 

tt 

.796875 

-1% 

.312500 

if 

.812500 

li 

.328125 

if 

.828125 

&  ' 

.343750 

£i 

3^ 

.843750 

M 

.359375 

H 

.859375 

3 

.375000 

£ 

» 

.875000 

If 

.390625 

fi 

.890625 

H 

.406250 

If 

.906250 

Il- 

.421875 

H 

.921875 

l's 

.437500 

it 

.937500 

it 

.453125 

H 

.953125 

H 

.468750 

ft 

.968750 

o7 

.484375 

fi 

.984375 

i 

.500000 

i 

1.000000 

368     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


Belting 

Horse  power  of  a  belt  velocity  in  feet  per  minute,  multiplied 
by  the  width  the  product  divided  by  1,000. 

1  in.  single  belt  moving  at  1,000  feet  per  minute,  1  H.  P. 

1  in.  double    "        "          "       700     "       "         "         1  H.  P. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  angle  of  the  belt  with  the  floor  should 
not  exceed  45.  It  is  also  desirable  to  locate  the  shafting  and  ma- 
chinery so  that  the  belts  should  run  off  from  each  shaft  in  op- 
posite directions,  as  this  arrangement  will  relieve  the  bearings 
from  the  friction  that  would  result  when  the  belts  all  pull  one 
way  on  the  shaft. 

The  diameter  of  the  pulleys  should  be  as  large  as  can  be  ad- 
mitted. 

The  pulleys  should  be  a  little  wider  than  the  belt  required  for 
the  work. 

Belts  should  be  kept  soft  and  pliable.  For  this  purpose  blood- 
warm  tallow,  dried  in  by  the  heat  of  fire  or  the  sun,  is  advised. 
Castor-oil  dressing  is  also  good. 

TABLE  XLVIII 

HORSE  POWER  OF  A  LEATHER  BELT  ONE  INCH  WIDE 


Velocity 
in  Feet 
per 
Second. 

LACED    BELTS  THICKNESS    IN    INCHES. 

1 

.143 

t 

.167 

A 

.187 

& 

.219 

i 
.250 

A 

.312 

* 

.333 

10 

.51 

.59 

.63 

.73 

.84 

1.05 

1.18 

15 

.75 

.88 

1.00 

1.16 

1.32 

1.66 

1.77 

20 

1.00 

1.17 

1.32 

1.54 

1.75 

2.19 

2.34 

25 

1.23 

1.43 

1.61 

1.88 

2  16 

2.69 

2.86 

30 

1.47 

1.72 

1.93 

2.25 

2.58 

3.22 

3.44 

35 

1.69 

1.97 

2.22 

2.59 

2.96 

3.70 

3.94 

40 

1.90 

2.22 

2.49 

2.90 

3.32 

4.15 

4.44 

45 

2.09 

2.45 

2.75 

3.21 

3.67 

4.58 

4.89 

50 

2.27 

2.65 

2.98 

3.48 

3.98 

4.97 

5.30 

55 

2.44 

2.84 

3.19 

3.72 

4.26 

5.32 

5.69 

60 

2.58 

3.01 

3.38 

3.95 

4.51 

5.64 

6.02 

65 

2.71 

3.16 

3.55 

4.14 

4.74 

5.92 

6.32 

70 

2.81 

3.27 

3.68 

4.29 

4.91 

6.14 

6.54 

75 

2.89 

3.37 

3.79 

4.42 

5.05 

6.31 

6.73 

80 

2.94 

3.43 

3.86 

4.50 

5.15 

6.44 

6.86 

85 

2.97 

3.47 

3.90 

4.55 

5.20 

6.50 

6.93 

90 

2.97 

3.47 

3.90 

4.55 

5.20 

6.50 

6.93 

The  horse  power  becomes  a  maximum  at  87.41  feet  per  second,  5,245  per  minute. 


RULES,    TABLES,   AND    OTHER    INFORMATION     369 

If  possible  to  avoid  it,  connected  shafts  should  never  be  placed 
one  directly  over  the  other,  as  in  such  case  the  belt  must  be  kept 
very  tight  to  do  the  work.  For  this  purpose  belts  should  be  care- 
fully selected  of  well-stretched  leather. 

RULE  FOR  FINDING  LENGTH  OF  BELTS 

Add  the  diameter  of  the  two  pulleys  together,  multiply  by 
3%,  divide  the  product  by  two,  add  to  the  quotient  twice  the  dis- 
tance between  the  centers  of  the  shafts,  and  product  will  be  the 
required  length. 


THE  TABLES    ON  THE  FOLLOWING  PAGES  HAVE  TO 
DO    WITH    THE    TEMPERATURES    AND    MOVE- 
MENTS   OF    AIR,     VOLUMES  AND  VELOCI- 
TIES,    SIZES     OF    DUCTS,     ETC.,     AS 
USED  IN  COMPUTATIONS  FOR 
THE    BLOWER    SYSTEM 
OF  HEATING  AND 
VENTILATION 


RULES,    TABLES,    AND    OTHER    INFORMATION     873 


TABLE  XLIX 

NUMBER  OF  SQUARE  INCHES  OF  FLUE  AREA  REQUIRED  PER  1,000  CUBIC  FEET  OF 
CONTEXTS  FOR  GIVEN  VELOCITY  AND  AIR  CHANGE 


No. 
Minutes 
to 
Change 
Air. 

VELOCITY   OP  AIR  IN   FLUE   IN   FEET   PER   MINUTE. 

300 

400     500 

600 

700 

800 

900 

1,000 

1,100  1,200 

1,300 

1,400 

1,500 

4 

120. 

90. 

72. 

60. 

51.6 

45. 

40. 

36. 

32.2 

30. 

27.6 

25.6 

21.4 

5 

96. 

72.2 

57.6 

48. 

41.1 

36.1 

32. 

28.8 

26.2 

24. 

22.2 

20.5 

19.2 

6 

80. 

60. 

48. 

40. 

34.  31 

30. 

26.6 

24. 

21.8 

20. 

18.5 

17.1 

16. 

7 

68.6 

51.4 

41.1 

34.3 

29.4 

25.7 

22.9 

20.6 

18.7 

17.2 

15.7 

14.713.7 

8 

60. 

45. 

36. 

30.   |25.8 

22.5 

20. 

18. 

16.1 

15. 

13.8 

12.812. 

9 

53.3 

40. 

32. 

26.6 

22.9 

20. 

17.8 

16. 

14.5 

13.3 

12.3 

11.410.7 

10 

48. 

36. 

28.8 

24. 

20.6 

18. 

16. 

14.4 

13.1 

12. 

11.1 

10.3'  9.6 

11 

43.6 

32.2 

26.2 

21.8 

18.7 

16.1 

14.5 

13.1 

11.9 

10.9 

10.1 

9.5 

8.7 

12 

40. 

30. 

24. 

20. 

17.2 

15. 

13.3 

12. 

10.9 

10. 

9.2 

8.6 

8. 

13 

36.9 

27.7 

22.2 

18.5  15.7 

13.8 

12.3 

11.1 

10.1 

9.2 

8.5 

7.9 

7.4 

14 

34.3 

25.7 

20.6 

17.2 

14.7 

12.8 

11.4 

10.3 

9.5 

8.6 

7.9 

7.4 

6.9 

15 

32. 

24. 

19.2 

16. 

13.7 

12. 

10.7 

9.6 

8.7 

8. 

7.4 

6.9 

6.4 

16 

30. 

22.5 

18. 

15. 

12.9 

11.2 

10. 

9. 

8.2 

7.5 

6.9 

6.4 

6. 

17 

28.2 

21.2 

16.9  14.1 

12.1 

10.6 

9.4 

8.5 

7.7 

7. 

6.5 

6.1 

5.6 

18 

26.6 

20. 

16.     13.3  11.5 

10. 

8.9 

8. 

7.3 

6.6 

6.2 

5.7 

5.3 

19 

25.3 

18.9 

15.2  12.6  10.8 

9.5 

8.4 

7.6 

6.9 

6.3 

5.8 

5.4 

5.1 

20 

24. 

18. 

14.  4  12.     10.3 

9 

8. 

7.2 

6.5 

6. 

5.5 

5.1 

4.8 

To  facilitate  calculation  of  flue  areas  for  different  requirements  in  heating,  ventila- 
tion and  the  general  movement  of  air,  the  table  above  and  that  upon  the  three  suc- 
ceeding pages  have  been  prepared.  The  former  is  to  be  employed  when  in  a  ventilating 
system  the  area  of  the  flue  is  to  be  based  upon  the  time  required  to  change  the  air  within 
the  room  and  upon  the  permissible  velocity  in  the  flue.  The  latter  table  indicates  the 
flue  area  necessary  for  the  passage  of  a  predetermined  volume  of  air  at  stated  velocity. 
Values  for  volumes  below  100  or  above  1,000  cubic  feet  may  be  readily  determined  from 
the  latter  table  by  reading  for  the  multiple  of  the  given  volume,  and  then  pointing  off 
the  requisite  number  of  places.  Thus,  if  a  volume  of  8,750  cubic  feet  of  air  is  required 
to  pass  through  a  flue  at  a  velocity  of  900  feet  per  minute,  the  cross  sectional  area  of  that 
must  be  1,400  square  inches. 


374      PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


TABLE  L 

FLUE  AREA  REQUIRED  FOR  THE  PASSAGE  OF  A  GIVEN  VOLUME  OF  AIR  AT  A  GIVEN 

VELOCITY 


Volume 
in  Cubic 
Feet 
per 
Minute. 

VELOCITY  IN  FEET  PER  MINUTE. 

300 

400 

500 

600 

700 

800 

900 

1,000 

1,100 

100 

48 

36 

29 

24 

21 

18 

16 

14 

13 

125 

60 

45 

36 

30 

26 

23 

20 

18 

16 

150 

72' 

54 

43 

36 

31 

27 

24 

22 

20 

175 

84 

63 

50 

42 

36 

32 

28 

25 

23 

200 

96 

72 

58 

48 

41 

36 

32 

29 

26 

225 

108 

81 

65 

54 

46 

41 

36 

32 

29 

250 

'120 

90 

72 

60 

51 

45 

40 

36 

33 

275 

132 

99 

79 

66 

57 

50 

44 

40 

36 

300 

144 

108 

86 

72 

62 

54 

48 

43 

39 

325 

156 

117 

94 

78 

67 

59 

52 

47 

43 

350 

168 

126 

101 

84 

72 

63 

56 

50 

46 

375 

180 

135 

108 

90 

77 

68 

60 

54 

49 

400 

192 

144 

115 

96 

82 

72 

64 

58 

52 

425 

204 

153 

122 

102 

87 

77 

68 

61 

56 

450 

216 

162 

130 

108 

93 

81 

72 

65 

59 

475 

228 

171 

137 

114 

98 

86 

76 

68 

62 

500 

240 

180 

144 

120 

103 

90 

80 

72 

65 

525 

252 

189 

151 

126 

108 

95 

84 

76 

69 

550 

264 

198 

158 

132 

113 

99 

88 

79 

72 

575 

276 

207 

166 

138 

118 

104 

92 

83 

75 

600 

288 

216 

173 

144 

123 

108 

96 

86 

79 

625 

300 

225 

180 

150 

129 

113 

100 

90 

82 

650   312 

234 

187 

156 

134 

117 

104 

94 

85 

675   324 

243 

194 

162 

139 

122 

108 

97 

88 

700   336 

252 

202 

168 

144 

126 

112 

101 

92 

725 

348 

261 

209 

174 

149 

131 

116 

104 

95 

750 

360 

270 

216 

180 

154 

135 

120 

108 

98 

775 

372 

279 

223 

186 

159 

140 

124 

112 

101 

800 

384 

288 

230 

192 

165 

144 

128 

115 

105 

825 

396 

297 

238 

198 

170 

149 

132 

119 

108 

850 

408 

306 

245 

204 

175 

153 

136 

122 

111 

875 

420 

315 

252 

210 

180 

158 

140 

126 

115 

900 

432 

324 

259 

216 

185 

162 

144 

130 

118 

925 

444 

333 

266 

222 

190 

167 

148 

133 

121 

950 

456 

342 

274 

228 

195 

171 

152 

137 

124 

975 

468 

351 

281 

234 

201 

176 

156 

140 

128 

1,000 

480 

360 

288    240 

206 

180 

160 

144 

131 

RULES,    TABLES,    AND    OTHER    INFORMATION      375 


TABLE  LI 

FLUE  AREA  REQUIRED  FOR  THE  PASSAGE  OF  A  GIVEN  VOLUME  OF  Am  AT  A  GIVEN 

VELOCITY — ( Continued } 


Volume 
in  Cubic 
Feet 
per 
Minute. 

VELOCITY  IN  FEET  PER  MINUTE. 

1,200 

1,300   1,400 

1,500 

1,600 

1,700 

1,800   1,900 

2,000 

100 

12 

11     10 

9.6 

9. 

8.5 

8      7.6 

7.2 

125 

15 

14 

13 

12. 

11.3 

10.6 

10 

9.5 

9. 

150 

18 

16 

15 

14.4 

13.5 

12.7 

12 

11.4 

10.8 

175 

21 

19 

18 

16.8 

15.8 

14.8 

14 

13.3 

12.6 

200 

24 

22 

21 

19.2 

18.     16.9 

16 

15.2 

14.4 

225 

27 

25 

23    21.6 

20.3   19.1 

18 

17.1 

16.2 

250 

30 

28 

26    24. 

22.5 

21.2 

20 

19. 

18. 

275 

33 

30 

28 

26.4 

24.8 

23.3 

22 

21.8 

19.8 

300 

36 

33 

31 

28.8 

27. 

25.4 

24 

22.7 

21.6 

325 

39 

36 

33 

31.2 

29.3   27.5 

26 

24.6 

23.4 

350 
375 

42 
45 

39 
42 

36 
39 

33.6 
36. 

31.5 
33.8 

29.6 
31.8 

28 
30 

26.5 

28.4 

25.2 

27. 

400 

48 

44 

41 

38.4   36. 

33.9 

32 

30.3   28.8 

425 

51 

47 

44 

40.8 

38.3 

36. 

34 

32.2   30.6 

450 

54 

50 

46 

43.2 

40.5 

38.1 

36 

34.1   32.4 

475 

57 

53 

49 

45.6 

42.8 

40.2 

38 

36.    34.2 

500 

60 

55 

51 

48. 

45. 

42.4 

40 

37  9   36. 

525 

63 

58 

54 

50.4 

47.3 

44.5 

42    39.8   37.8 

550 

66 

61 

57 

52.8 

49.5 

46.6 

44 

41.7   38.6 

575 

69 

64 

59 

55.2 

51.8 

48.7 

46 

43.6   41.4 

600 

72 

66 

62 

57.6 

54. 

50.8 

48 

45.5   43  2 

625 

75 

69 

64 

60. 

56.3 

52.9 

50 

47.4   45. 

650 
675 

78 
81 

72 
75 

67 
69 

62.4 
64.8 

58.5   55.1 
60.8   57.2 

52 
54 

49.3   46.8 
51.2   48.6 

700 

84 

78 

72 

67.2 

63.     59.3 

56    53.1    50.4 

725 

87 

80 

75 

69.6 

65.3 

61.4 

58 

55.    52.2 

750 

90 

83 

77 

72. 

67.5 

63.5 

60 

56.9   54. 

775 

93 

86 

80 

74.4 

69.8 

65.6 

62 

58.8   56.3 

800 

96 

89 

82 

76.8 

72. 

67.8 

64 

60.6    57.6 

825 

99 

91 

85 

79.2 

74.3 

69.9 

66 

62.5   59.4 

850 

102 

94 

87 

81.6 

76.5 

72. 

68 

64.4   61.2 

875 

105 

97 

90 

84. 

78.8 

74. 

70 

67.3   63. 

900 

108 

100 

93 

86.4 

81. 

76.2 

72 

68.2    64.8 

925 

111 

103 

95 

88.8 

83.3 

78.4 

74 

70.1   66.6 

950 

114 

105 

98 

91.2 

85.5   80.5 

76 

72.    68.4 

975 

117 

108 

100 

93.6 

87.8 

82.6 

78 

73.9   70.2 

1,000 

120 

111 

103 

96. 

90. 

84.7 

80 

75.8    72. 

376      PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


TABLE  LII 

FLUE  AREA  REQUIRED  FOR  THE  PASSAGE  OF  A  GIVEN  VOLUME  OF  Am  AT  A  GIVEN 

VELOCITY —  (Continued} 


Volume 
in  Cubic 
Feet 
per 
Minute. 

VELOCITY    IN    FEET   PER   MINXJTE. 

2,100 

2,200 

2,300 

2,400 

2,600 

2,700 

2,800 

2,900 

3,000 

3,100 

100 

6.9 

6.6 

6.3 

6. 

5.5 

5.3 

5.1 

5. 

4.8 

4.6 

125 

8.6 

8.2 

7.8 

7.5 

6.9 

6.7 

6.4 

6.2 

6. 

5.8 

150 

10.3 

9.8 

9.4 

9. 

8. 

8. 

7.7 

7.5 

7.2 

7. 

175 

12. 

11.5 

11. 

10.5 

9.7 

9.3 

9. 

8.7 

8.4 

8.1 

200 

13.7 

13.1 

12.5 

12. 

11.1 

10.7 

10.3 

9.9 

9.6 

9.3 

225 

15.6 

14.7 

14.1 

13.5 

12.5 

12. 

11.6 

11.2 

10.8 

10.4 

250 

17.1 

16.4 

15.7 

15. 

13.9 

13.3 

12.9 

12.4 

12. 

11.6 

275 

18.9 

18. 

17.2 

16.5 

15.2 

14.7 

14.1 

13.7 

13.2 

12.8 

300 

20.6 

19.6 

18.8 

18. 

16.6 

16. 

15.4 

14.9 

14.4 

13.9 

325 

22.3* 

21.3 

20.6 

19.5 

18. 

17.3 

16.7 

16.1 

15.6 

15.1 

350 

24. 

22.9 

21.9 

21. 

19.4 

18.7 

18. 

17.4 

16.8 

16.3 

375 

25.7 

24.5 

23.5 

22.5 

20.8 

20. 

19.3 

18.6 

18. 

17.4 

400 

27.4 

26.2 

25. 

24. 

22.2 

21.3 

20.6 

19.8 

19.2 

18.6 

425 

29.1 

27.8 

26.6 

25.5 

23.5 

22.7 

21.9 

21.1 

20.4 

19.7 

450 

30.9 

29.5 

28.2 

27. 

24.9 

24. 

23.1 

22.3 

21.6 

20.9 

475 

32.6 

31.1 

29.7 

28.5 

26.3 

25.3 

24.4 

23.6 

22.8 

22.1 

500 

34.3 

32.7 

31.3 

30. 

27.7 

26.7 

25.7 

24.8 

24. 

23.2 

525 

36. 

34.4 

32.9 

31.5 

29.1 

28. 

26.9 

25. 

25.2 

24.4 

550 

37.7 

36. 

34.4 

33. 

30.5 

29.3 

28.3 

27.3 

26.4 

25.5 

575 

39.4 

37.6 

36. 

34.5 

31.9 

30.7 

29.6 

28.5 

27.6 

26.7 

600 

41.1 

39.3 

37.6 

36. 

33.2 

32. 

30.8 

29.8 

28.8 

27.8 

625 

42.9 

40.9 

39.1 

37.5 

34.6  ' 

33.3 

32.1 

31. 

30. 

29. 

650 

44.6 

42.5 

40.7 

39. 

36. 

34.7 

33.4 

32.2 

31.2 

30.2 

675 

46.3 

44.1 

42.3 

40.5 

37.5 

36. 

34.7 

33.5 

32.4 

31.3 

700 

48. 

45.8 

43.8 

42. 

38.8 

37.3 

36. 

34.7 

33.6 

32.5 

725 

49.7 

47.4 

45.4 

43.5 

40.2 

38.7 

37.3 

36. 

34.8 

33.6 

750 

51.4 

49.1 

47. 

45. 

41.5 

40. 

38.6 

37.2 

36. 

34.8 

775 

53.1 

50.7 

48.5 

46.5 

42.9 

41.3 

39.9 

38.5 

37.2 

36. 

800 

54.9 

52.4 

50.1 

48. 

44.3 

42.7 

41.2 

39.7 

38.4 

37.1 

825 

56.6 

54. 

51.7 

49.5 

45.7 

44. 

42.4 

40.9 

39.6 

38.3 

850 

58.4 

55.6 

53.2 

51. 

47.1 

45.3 

43.7 

42.2 

40.8 

39.4 

875 

60. 

57.3 

54.8 

52.5 

48.5 

46.7 

45. 

43.4 

42. 

40.6 

900 

61.7 

58.9 

56.3 

54. 

49.9 

48. 

46.3 

44.6 

43.2 

41.8 

925 

63.4 

60.5 

57.9 

55.5 

51.3 

49.3 

47.6 

46. 

44.4 

42.9 

950 

65.1 

62.2 

59.5 

57. 

52.6 

50.7 

48.8 

47.1 

45.6 

44.1 

975 

66.8 

63.8 

61.0 

58.5 

54. 

52. 

50.2 

48.4 

46.8 

45.3 

1,000 

68.7 

66. 

62.6 

60. 

55.4 

53.3 

51.4 

49.6 

48. 

46.4 

RULES,    TABLES,    AND    OTHER   INFORMATION      377 


TABLE  Lm 

WEIGHT  OF  ROUND  GALVANIZED  IRON  PIPE  AND  ELBOWS,  OF  THE  PROPER  GAUGES 
FOR  HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  SYSTEMS 


Gauge 
and 
Weight 
per 
Sq.  Ft. 

Diam. 
of 
Pipe. 

Area 
in 
Sq.  Ins. 

Weight 

Run- 
ning 
Foot. 

Weight 
of 
Full 
Elbow. 

Gauge 
and 
Weight 
per 
Sq.  Ft. 

Diam. 
of 
Pipe. 

Area 

in 
Sq.  Ins. 

Weight 

RPun- 
ning 
Foot. 

Weight 
of 
Full 
Elbow. 

3 

7.1 

0.7 

0.4 

36 

1,017.9 

17.2 

124.4 

4 

12.6 

1.1 

0.9 

37 

1,075.2 

17.8 

131.4 

No.  28 

5 

19.6 

1.2 

1.2 

38 

1,134.1 

18.2 

139.4 

0.78 

6 

7 

28.3 
38.5 

1.4 
1.7 

1.7 
2.3 

No.  20 

39 
40 

,194.6 
,256.6 

18.7 
19.1 

146.0 
152.9 

8 

50.3 

1.9 

2.9 

1.66 

41 

,320.3 

19.6 

160.7 

42 

,385.4 

20.1 

168.6 

43 

,452.2 

20.6 

176.7 

9 

63.6 

2.4 

4.3 

44 

,520.5 

21.0 

185.0 

10 

78.5 

2.7 

5.3 

45 

,590.4 

21.5 

193.4 

Xo.  26 

11 

95.0 

2.9 

6.4 

46 

1,661.9 

22.0 

202.2 

0.91 

12 

113.1 

3.2 

7.6 

13 

132.7 

3.4 

8.9 

14 

153.9 

3.7 

10.4 

47 

1,734.9 

29.2 

274.3 

48 

1,809.6 

29.8 

286.6 

49 

1,885.7 

30.4 

298.8 

15 

176.7 

4.5 

13.5 

50 

1,963.5 

31.0 

309.9 

16 

201.1 

4.7 

15.1 

51 

2,042.8 

31.6 

322.5 

Xo.  25 

17 

227.0 

5.0 

17.0 

52 

2,123.7 

32.2 

335.1 

1.03 

18 

254.5 

5.3 

19.1 

No.  18 

53 

2,206.2 

33.0 

349.7 

19 

283.5 

5.6 

21.4 

2.16 

54 

2,290.2 

33.6 

363.4 

20 

314.2 

6.0 

23.9 

55 

2,375.8 

34.4 

377.2 

56 

2,463.0 

34.9 

390.7 

57 

2,551.8 

35.6 

405.1 

21 

346.4 

7.0 

29.6 

58 

2,642.1 

36.1 

418.8 

22 

380.1 

7.3 

32.3 

59 

2,734.0 

36.7 

433.1 

Xo.  24 

23 

415.5 

7.7 

35.6 

60 

2,827.4 

37.4 

448.6 

1.16 

24 

452.4 

8.0 

38.6 

25 

490.9 

8.3 

41.7 

26 

530.9 

8.7 

45.1 

61 

2,922.5 

46.7 

569.7 

62 

3,019.1 

47.5 

589.0 

63 

3,117.3 

48.3 

608.6 

27 

572.6 

10.9 

59.1 

64 

3,217.0 

49.1 

628.5 

28 

615.7 

11.4 

64.2 

65 

3,318.3 

49.8 

647.4 

29 

660.5 

11.8 

68.6 

Xo.  16 

66 

3,421.2 

50.5 

666.6 

Xo.  22 

30 

706.9 

12  2 

73.4 

P  66 

67 

3,525.7 

51.3 

687.4 

31 

754.8 

12.6 

78.3 

**  .  Uvl 

68 

3,631.7 

52.1 

708.6 

1.41 

32 

804.3 

13.0 

83.4 

69 

3,739.3 

52.8 

728.6 

33 

855.3 

13.5 

88.9 

70 

3,848.5 

53.6 

750.4 

34 

907.9 

13.9 

94.3 

71 

3,959.2 

54.3 

771.0 

35 

962  .  1 

14.3 

99.9 

72 

4,071.5 

55.1 

793.4 

RULES,    TABLES,    AND    OTHER    INFORMATION       379 


TABLE  LV 

AIR 

Loss  of  Pressure  in  Ounces  per  Square  Inch  for  Varying  Velocities  and  Varying 

Diameters  of  Pipes 


Velocity  of 
Air,   Feet 
per  Minute. 

DIAMETER    OF    PIPE    IN    INCHES. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

LOSS    OF   PRESSURE    IN    OUNCES. 

600 
1,200 
1,800 
2,400 
3,000 
3,600 
4,200 
4,800 
6,000 

600 
1,200 
1,800 
2,400 
3,000 
3,600 
4,200 
4,800 
6,000 

600 
1,200 
1,800 
2,400 
3,600 
4.200 
4,800 
6,000 

600 
1,200 
1,800 
2,400 
3,600 
4,200 
4,800 
6,000 

.400 

1.600 
3.600 
6.400 
10.000 
14.400 

.200 
.800 
1.800 
3.200 
5.000 
7.200 
9.800 
12.800 
20.000 

.133 
.533 
1.200 
2.133 
3.333 
4.800 
6.553 
8.533 
13.333 

.100 
.400 
.900 
1.600 
2.500 
3.600 
4.900 
6.400 
10.000 

.080 
.320 
.720 
1.280 
2.000 
2.880 
3.920 
5  .  120 
8.000 

.067 
.267 
.600 
1.067 
1.667 
2.400 
3.267 
4.267 
6.667 

DIAMETER  OF  PIPE  IN  INCHES. 

•j 

8 

9                     10 

11 

12 

LOSS    OF    PRESSURE    IN    OUNCES. 

.057 

.229 
.514 
.914 
1.429 
2.057 
2.800 
3.657 
5.714 

.050 
.200 
.450 
.800 
1.250 
1.800 
2.450 
3.200 
5.000 

.044               .040 
.178               .160 
.400               .360 
.711               .640 
1.111            1.000 
1.600            1.440 
2  178            1.960 
2.844            2.560 
4.444            4.000 

.036 
.145 
.327 
.582 
.909 
1.309 
1.782 
2.327 
3.636 

.033 
.133 
.300 
.533 
.833 
1.200 
1.633 
2.133 
3.333 

DIAMETER    OF    PIPE    IN    INCHES. 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

LOSS    OF    PRESSURE    IN    OUNCES. 

.029 
.114 
.257 
.457 
1.029 
1.400 
1.829 
2.857 

.026 
.100 
.225 
.400 
.900 
1  .  225 
1.600 
2.500 

.022 
.089 
.200 
.356 
.800 
1.089 
1.422 
2.222 

.020 
.080 
.180 
.320 
.720 
.980 
1.280 
2.000 

.018 
.073 
.164 
.291 
.655 
.891 
1.164 
1.818 

.017 
.067 
.156 
.267 
.600 
.817 
1.067 
1.667 

DIAMETER    OF    PIPE    IN    INCHES. 

28 

32 

36                       40 

44 

48 

LOSS    OF    PRESSURE    IN    OUNCES. 

.014 
.057 
.129 
.239 
.514 
.700 
.914 
1.429 

.012 
.050 
.112 
.200 
.450 
.612 
.800 
1.250 

.011 
.044 
.100 
.178 
.400 
.544 
.711 
1.111 

.010 
.040 
.090 
.160 
.360 
.490 
.640 
1.000 

.009 
.036 
.082 
.145 
.327 
.445 
.582 
.909 

.008 
.033 
.075 
.133 
.300 
.408 
.533 
.833 

380     PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


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RULES,    TABLES,    AND    OTHER    INFORMATION      381 


TABLE  LVII 
OF  THE  NUMBER  OF  THERMAL  UNITS  CONTAINED  IN  ONE  POUND  OF  WATER 


Temper- 
ature. 

Number 
of 
Thermal 
Units. 

In- 
crease. 

Temper- 
ature. 

Number 
of 
Thermal 
Units. 

In-        i  Temper- 
crease,   jj    ature. 

Number 
of 
Thermal 
Units. 

In- 
crease. 

35° 

35.000 

15*5° 

155.339 

5.034         275°      276.985 

5.107 

40 

40.001 

5.001 

160 

160.374 

5.035         280        282.095 

5.110 

45 

45.002 

5.001 

165 

165.413 

5.039         285     |  287.210 

5.115 

50 

50.003 

5.001 

170 

170.453 

5.040 

290 

292.329 

5.119 

55 

55.006 

5.003 

175 

175.497 

5.044  1 

295 

297.452 

5.123 

60 

60.009 

5.003 

180 

180.542 

5.045 

300 

302.580 

5.128 

65 

65.014 

5.005 

185 

185.591 

5.049 

305 

307.712 

5.132 

70 

70.020 

5.006 

190 

190.643 

5.052 

310 

312.848 

5.136 

75 

75.027 

5.007 

195 

195.697 

5.054 

315 

317.988 

5.140 

80 

80.036 

5.009 

200 

200.753 

5.056 

320 

323.134 

5.146 

85 

85.045 

5.009 

205 

205.813 

5.060 

325 

328.284 

5.150 

90 

90.055 

5.010 

210 

210.874 

5.061 

330 

333.438 

5.154 

95 

95.067 

5.012 

215 

215.939 

5.065 

335 

338.596 

5.158 

100 

100.080 

5.013 

220 

221.007 

5.068 

340 

343.759 

5.163 

105 

105.095 

5.015 

225 

226.078 

5.071 

345 

348.927 

5.168 

110 

110.110 

5.015 

230 

231.153 

5.075 

350 

354.101 

5.174 

115 

115.129 

5.019 

235 

236.232 

5.079 

355 

359.280 

5.179 

120 

120.149 

5.020 

240 

241.313 

5.081 

360 

364.464 

5.184 

125 

125.169 

5.020 

245 

246.398 

5.085 

365 

369.653 

5.189 

130 

130.192 

5.023 

250 

251.487 

5.089 

370 

374.846 

5.193 

135 

135.217 

5.025 

255 

256.579 

5.092 

375 

380.044 

5.198 

140 

140.245 

5.028 

260 

261.674 

5.095 

380 

385.247 

5.203 

145 

145.175 

5.030 

265 

266.774 

5.100 

385 

390.456 

5.209 

150        150.305 

5.030 

270        271.878 

5.104         390 

395.672 

5.216 

382      PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


TABLE  LVHI 

VOLUME  AND  DENSITY  OF  AIR  AT  VARIOUS  TEMPERATURES 


Temperature. 
Degrees. 

Volume  of  1  Ib.  of  Air  at 
Atmospheric  Presssure  of 
14.7  Ibs. 
Cubic  Feet. 

Density  or  Weight  of  1 
Cubic  foot  of  Air  at  14.7  Ibs. 
Lbs. 

0 

11.583 

.086331 

32 

12.387 

.080728 

40 

12.586 

.079439 

50 

12.84 

.077884 

62 

13.141 

.076097 

70 

13.342 

.07495 

80 

13.593 

.073565 

90 

13.845 

.07223 

100 

14.096 

.070942 

120 

14.592 

.0685 

140 

15.1 

.066221 

160 

15.603 

.064088 

180 

16  .  106 

.06209 

200 

16.606 

.06021 

210 

16.86 

.059313 

212 

16.91 

.059135 

220 

17.111 

.058442 

240 

17.612 

.056774 

260 

18.116 

.0552 

•  280 

18.621 

.05371 

300 

19.121 

.052297 

320 

19.624 

.  050959 

340 

20.126 

.049686 

360 

20.63 

.048476 

380 

21.131 

.047323 

400 

21.634 

.046223 

425 

22.262 

.04492 

450 

22.89 

.043686 

475 

23.518 

.04252 

500 

24  .  146 

.041414 

525 

24.775 

.040364 

550 

25.403 

.039365 

575 

26.031 

.038415 

600 

26.659 

.03751 

650 

27.915 

.035822 

700 

29.171 

.03428 

750 

30.428 

.032865 

800 

31.684 

.031561 

850 

32.941 

.030358 

900 

34  .  197 

.029242 

950 

35.454 

.028206 

1,000 

36.811 

.027241 

1,500 

49.375 

.020295 

2,000 

61.94 

.016172 

2,500 

74.565 

.013441 

3,000 

87.13 

.011499 

RULES,    TABLES,    AND    OTHER    INFORMATION 


TABLE  LIX 

INFLUENCE  OF  THE  TEMPERATURE  OF  AIR  UPON  THE  CONDITIONS  OF  ITS  MOVEMENT 


Temper- 
ature in 
Degrees, 
Fahr. 

Relative 
Velocity 
Due  to  the 
Same 
Pressure. 

Relative 
Pressure 
Necessary 
to  Pro- 
duce the 
Same 
Velocity. 

Relative 
Weight  of 
Air  Moved 
at  the 
Same 
Velocity. 

Relative 
Velocity 
Necessary 
to  Move 
the  Same 
Weight 
of  Air. 

Relative 
Pressure 
Necessary 
to  Produce 
the 
Velocity 
to  Move 
the  Same 
Weight 
of  Air. 

Relative 
Power 
Necessary 
to  Move 
the  Same 
Volume  of 
Air  at  the 
Same 
Velocity. 

Relative 
Power 
Necessary 
to   Move 
the  Same 
Weight  of 
Air  at  the 
Velocity  in 
Column  5 
and   the 
Pressure  in 
Column  6. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

30 

0.98 

1.04 

1.04 

0.96 

0.96 

1.04 

0.92 

40 

0.99 

1.02 

1.02 

0.98 

0.98 

1.02 

0.96 

50 

1.00 

1.00 

1.00 

.00 

1.00 

1.00 

.00 

60 

1.01 

0.98 

0.98 

.02 

1.02 

0.98 

.04 

70 

1.02 

0.96 

0.96 

.04 

1.04 

0.96 

.08 

80 

1.03 

0.94 

0.94 

.06 

1.06 

0.94 

.12 

90 

1.04 

0.93 

0.93 

.08 

1.08 

0.93 

.17 

100 

1.05 

0.91 

0.91 

.10 

1.10 

0.91 

.21 

125 

1.07 

0.87 

0.87 

1.15 

1.15 

0.87 

.32 

150 

.09 

0.84 

0.84 

1.20 

1.20 

0.84 

.43 

175 

.11 

0.81 

0.81 

1.24 

1.24 

0.81 

.55 

200 

.14 

0.78 

0.78 

1.29 

1.29 

0.78 

.67 

225 

.16 

0.75 

0.75 

1.34 

1.34 

0.75 

.80 

250 

.18 

0.72 

0.72 

1.39 

1.39 

0.72 

.93 

275 

.20 

0.69 

0.69 

1.44 

1.44 

0.69 

2.07 

300 

.22 

0.67 

0.67 

1.49 

1.49 

0.67 

2.22 

325 

.24 

0.65 

0.65 

1.54 

1.54 

0.65 

2.36 

350 

.26 

0.63 

0.63 

.59 

1.59 

0.63 

2.51 

375 

.28 

0.61 

0.61 

.63 

1.63 

0.61 

2.66 

400 

.30 

0.59 

0.59 

.68 

1.68 

0.59 

2.82 

425 

.32 

0.58 

0.58 

.73 

1.73 

0.58 

2.99 

450 

.34 

0.56 

0.56 

.78 

1.78 

0.56 

3.17 

475 

.35 

0.55 

0.55 

.83 

1.83 

0.55 

3.35 

500 

.37 

0.53 

0.53 

.88 

1.88 

0.53 

3.53 

525 

.39 

0.52 

0.52 

.93 

1.93 

0.52 

3.72 

550 

.41 

0.51 

0.51 

.98 

1.98 

0.51 

3.92 

575 

.43 

0.49 

0.49 

2.03 

2.03 

0.49 

4.12 

600 

.44 

0.48 

0.48 

2.08 

2.08 

0.48 

4.33 

625 

.46 

0.47 

0.47 

2.13 

2.13 

0.47 

4.54 

650 

.48 

0.46 

0.46 

2.18 

2.18 

0.46 

4.75 

675 

.49 

0.45 

0.45 

2.22 

2.22 

0.45 

4.93 

700 

.51 

0.44 

0.44 

2.27 

2.27 

0.44 

5.15 

725 

.52 

0.43 

0.43 

2.32 

2.32 

0.43 

5.38 

750 

.54 

0.42 

0.42 

2.37 

2.37 

0.42 

5.62 

775 

.56 

0.41 

0.41 

2.42 

2.42 

0.41 

5.86 

800 

.57 

0.40 

0.40 

2.47 

2.47 

0.40 

6.10 

384      PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


TABLE  LX 

VELOCITY  CREATED,  VOLUME  DISCHARGED  AND  HORSE  POWER  REQUIRED  WHEN 

AIR  UNDER  A  GIVEN  PRESSURE  IN  OUNCES  PER  SQUARE  INCH  is  ALLOWED 

TO  ESCAPE  INTO  THE  ATMOSPHERE 

In  the  following  table  the  volume  is  proportional  to  the  velocity. 

The  power  varies  as  the  cube  of  the  velocity. 

"  Blast  area  "  generally  means  the  maximum  area  over  which  the  velocity  of  the 
air  will  equal  the  velocity  of  the  pipes  at  the  tips  of  the  floats.  If  this  area  is  decreased 
the  volume  will  be  decreased,  but  the  pressure  will  remain  constant.  If  this  area  is 
increased  the  pressure  is  lowered,  but  the  volume  somewhat  increased. 

This  table  is  calculated  for  50°  F.  temperature.  Different  temperature  will  effect 
the  result.  The  movement  of  air  through  pipes  will  also  change  results. 


Pressure 
Ounces  per 
Square  Inch. 

VELOCITY  OF  AIR  ESCAPING  INTO 
ATMOSPHERE. 

Volume  Dis- 
charged in  One 
Minute  Through 
Effective  Area  of 
One  Square  Inch, 
in  Cubic  Feet. 

Horse  Power 
of  Air  Blast. 

In  Feet  per  Second. 

In  Feet  per 
Minute. 

l/S 

30.47 

1,828 

12.69 

0  .  0004 

X 

43.08 

2,585 

17.95 

0  001 

y* 

52.75 

3,165 

21.98 

0.002 

H 

60.90 

3,654 

25.37 

0  003 

5/s 

68.07 

4,084 

28.36 

0.005 

H 

74.54 

4,473 

31.06 

0.006 

7/s 

80.50 

4,830 

33.54 

0.008 

I 

86.03 

5,162 

35.85 

0.01 

Vi 

96.13 

5,768 

40.06 

0.014 

iy2 

105.25 

6,315 

43.86 

0.02 

w 

113.64 

6,818 

47.34 

0.023 

2 

121.41 

7,284 

50.59 

0.028 

2^ 

128.70 

7,722 

53.63 

0.033 

&A 

135.59 

8,136 

56.50 

0.039 

*H 

142  .  14 

8,528 

59.22 

0.044 

3 

148.38 

8,903 

61.83 

0.05 

3^ 

160.10 

9,606 

66.71 

0.06 

4 

170.98 

10,259 

71.24 

0.08 

4^ 

181  .  16 

10,870 

75.48 

0.09 

5 

190.76 

11,446 

79.48 

0.11 

VA 

199.86 

11,992 

83.24 

0.12 

6 

208.53 

12,512 

86.89 

0.14 

7 

224.77 

13,486 

93.66 

0.18 

8 

239.80 

14,388 

99.92 

0.22 

9 

253.83 

15,230 

105.76 

0.26 

10 

267.00 

16,020 

111.25 

0.30 

11 

279.70 

16,768 

116.45 

0.35 

12 

291.30 

17,478 

121.38 

0.40 

13 

302.59 

18,155 

126.06 

0.45 

14 

313.38 

18,803 

130.57 

0.50 

15 

323  .  73 

19,424 

134.89 

0.55 

16 

333.68 

20,021 

139.03 

0.61 

17 

343.26 

20,596 

143  .  03 

0.66 

18 

352.52 

21,151 

146.88 

0.72 

19 

361.46 

21,688 

150.61 

0.78 

20 

370.13 

22,208 

154.22 

0.84 

RULES,    TABLES,    AND    OTHER    INFORMATION      385 


TABLE  LXI 

MOISTURE  ABSORBED  BY  Am 

The  Quantity  of  Water  Which  Air  is  Capable  of  Absorbing  to  the  Point  of  Maximum 
Saturation,  in  Grains  per  Cubic  Foot  for  Various  Temperatures 


Degrees.                         Grains   in   a                           Degrees 
Fahrenheit.                         Cubic  Foot.                         Fahrenheit. 

Grains  in  a 
Cubic  Foot. 

10 

1.1 

85 

12.43 

15 

1.31 

90 

14.38 

20 

1.56 

95 

16.60 

25 

1.85 

100 

19.12 

30 

2.19 

105 

22.0 

32 

2.35 

110 

25.5 

35 

2.59 

115 

30.0 

40 

3.06 

130 

42.5 

45 

3.61 

141 

58.0 

50 

4.24 

157 

85.0 

55 

4.97 

170 

112.5 

60 

5.82 

179 

138.0 

65 

6.81 

188 

166.0 

70 

7.94 

195 

194.0 

75 

9.24 

212 

265.0 

80 

10.73 

PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


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RULES,    TABLES,   AND    OTHER    INFORMATION      387 


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388      PRACTICAL    HEATING    AND    VENTILATION 


TABLE  LXIV 

PRESSURE  IN  INCHES  OF  WATER  AND  CORRESPONDING  PRESSURE  IN  OUNCES,  WITH 
VELOCITIES  OF  AIR  DUE  TO  PRESSURES 


Pressure 
per  Square 
Inch  in 
Inches  of 
Water. 

Corresponding 
Pressure  in 
Ounces  per 
Square  Inch. 

Velocity  Due 
to  the  Pres- 
sure in  Feet 
per  Minute. 

Pressure  per 
Square  Inch 
in   Inches  of 
Water. 

Corresponding 
Pressure    in 
Ounces  per 
Square  Inch. 

Velocity  Due 
to  the  Pres- 
sure in  Feet 
per  Minute. 

X* 

.01817 

696.78 

H 

.36340 

3,118.38 

%, 

.03634 

987.66 

% 

.43608 

3,416.64 

l/8 

.07268 

1,393.75 

H 

.50870 

3,690.62 

%. 

.  10902 

1,707.00 

i 

.58140 

3,946  .  17 

1A 

.  14536 

1,971.30 

IX 

.7267 

4,362.62 

%> 

.18170 

2,204  .  16 

m 

.8721 

4,836.06 

H 

.21804 

2,414.70 

m 

1.0174 

5,224.98 

1A 

.29072 

2,788.74 

2 

1  .  1628 

5,587.58 

TABLE  LXV 

PRESSURE  IN  OUNCES  PER  SQUARE  INCH  WITH  VELOCITIES  OF  AIR  DUE  TO  PRESSURES 


Pressure 
in  Ounces 
per  Square 

Velocity  Due 
to  the  Pres- 
sure in  Feet 
per   Minute. 

Pressure    in 
Ounces  per 
Square  Inch. 

Velocity  Due 
to  the  Pres- 
sure in  Feet 
per  Minute. 

Pressure  in 
Ounces  per 
Square  inch. 

Velocity  Due 
to  the  Pres- 
sure in  Feet 
per  Minute. 

.25 

2,582 

2.75 

8,618 

7.50                 14,374 

.50 

3,658 

3.00 

9,006 

8.00 

14,861 

.75 

4,482 

3.50 

9,739 

9.00 

15,795 

1.00 

5,178 

4.00 

10,421 

10.00 

16,684 

1.25 

5,792 

4.50 

11,065 

11.00 

17,534 

1.50 

6,349 

5.00 

11,676 

12.00 

18,350 

1.75 

6,861 

5.50 

12,259 

13.00 

19,138 

2.00 

7,338 

6.00 

12,817 

14.00 

19,901 

2.25 

7,787 

6.50 

13,354 

15.00 

20,641 

2.50 

8,213 

7.00 

13,873 

16.00 

21,360 

RULES,    TABLES,   AND    OTHER    INFORMATION      389 


TABLE  LXVI 

WEIGHTS  OF  GALVANIZED  IRON  PIPE  PER  LINEAL  FOOT 


Diameter 
of  Pipe 
in  Inches. 

GAUGE    OF   IRON  NUMBERS. 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

3 

2^~ 

1% 

ix 

« 

1 

4 

2% 

1% 

l/^ 

1% 

5 
6 

3% 

3% 

2% 
3 

2 
2% 

1% 

2 

IM 

7 

3^2 

2% 

2% 

2 

8 

&/A. 

4 

3 

2% 

2% 

9 

5% 

4/^ 

3% 

3 

2/^ 

10 

gix/ 

4% 

3% 

23^ 

11 
12 

6% 

5% 

5% 

3% 

4% 

3% 

2% 
3 

13 

8  2 

6% 

4/^ 

4 

3% 

14 
15 
16 

9% 
9% 

6% 

7% 

4% 
5% 

4% 
4% 
5 

3% 

17 

8 

6 

5% 

4% 

18 
19 

10% 

9  2 

6% 

6% 

5% 

4% 

20 

12  2 

7 

6 

5% 

21 

22 

13% 

9% 
10% 

?% 

6% 

5% 

23 

14 

11 

8% 

7 

6 

24 

14% 

H/^ 

8% 

7/^ 

6^ 

26 

15% 

123^ 

9% 

7% 

6^ 

28 

16% 

13Vi 

9% 

8^A 

7 

30 

18 

14 

10}/^ 

9 

7^/2 

32 

19% 

15 

11% 

9% 

8 

34 
36 

20% 

15% 
16% 

12 

10% 
10% 

9 

38 

22% 

18 

133^ 

ll/^ 

9/^j  . 

40 

42 

24 
25 

18% 
1»H 

14  " 

14% 

12 

10 

44 

26% 

15i/o  * 

13 

11 

46 

271-1 

21% 

16 

13% 

H/^2 

48 

28i/£ 

22% 

16% 

14% 

12 

50 

29% 

23 

VV& 

15 

123^ 

52 

31% 

24% 

18% 

54 

25 

18% 

56 

33% 

26 

19 

58 
60 

35 
36% 

26% 

271^ 

20% 
20% 

•  • 

63 

38% 

29 

21% 

66 

40 

30% 

22% 

69 

72 

41% 

32% 
33% 

23% 
25 

The  figures  in  bold-faced  type  represent  weight  of  round  piping  ordinarily  used  in 
heating  work. 


INDEX 


Advantages  of  steam  heating,  114.          Angles,  measurements  for,  209,   210, 


Air,  circulation  of,  by  direct  radia- 
tion, 98. 

Air,  circulation  of,  by  indirect  radia- 
tion,.^. 

Air  cleansing,  233,  234. 

Air  compressor,  Johnson,  312. 

Air,  conditions  of  its  movement,  383. 

Air  ducts  for  ventilating,  248,  250. 

Air  ducts,  indirect  heating,  94. 

Air,  expansion  of,  349. 

Air,  humidity  of,  259,  260. 

Air,  influence  of  the  temperature,  383. 

Air,  loss  of  pressure  in  pipes,  379. 

Air,  method  of  measuring  velocity, 
258. 

Air,  moisture  absorbed  by,  385. 

Air  necessary  for  ventilation,  213,  218. 

Air  required  to  burn  coal,  349. 

Air,  table  of  velocities  due  to  pressure, 
388. 

Air  valve,  77. 

Air  valve,  compression,  77. 

Air  valves,  automatic,  78,  79. 

Air,  velocity  at  furnace  register,  349. 

Air,  velocity,  volume,  and  horse  power 
required,  384. 

Air,  volume  and  density  at  various 
pressures,  382. 

Air,  volume  necessary  to  maintain 
given  standard  of  purity,  387. 

Air,  wire  screen  for  cleansing,  233. 

Altitude  gauge,  146. 

Anemometer,  description  of,  258. 


349. 

Angle  valve,  74. 

Apparatus  for  testing  blower  systems, 
257,  261. 

Area  of  circle,  350. 

Areas  of  circles,  table  of,  358. 

Artificial  heating  apparatus,  evolu- 
tion of,  22. 

Artificial  heating,  methods  of,  23. 

Artificial  water  line,  205,  206. 

Asbestos,  295. 

Aspirating  coil,  to  determine  size  of, 
349. 

Atmosphere,  moisture  in  the,  386. 

Attention  to  boilers,  330,  331. 

Automatic  damper  regulator,  50,  53, 
300. 

Automatic  water  feeders,  287. 

Back-pressure  valves,  282. 
Belting,  horse  power  of,  368. 
Belting,  rule  for  finding  length,  369. 
Blow-off  cock,  53,  54. 
Boiler,  All  Right,  33. 
Boiler,  Bundy,  33. 
Boiler,  common  type  of  upright  tubu- 
lar, 28. 

Boiler  covering,  293. 
Boilers,  cross-connecting,  206,  209. 
Boiler,  Dunning,  29. 
Boilers,  early  types  of,  26. 
Boiler  explosions,  340,  341. 
Boilers,  feed  water  required,  364. 


391 


392 


INDEX 


Boiler,  Florida,  32. 
Boiler,  Gold,  30. 
Boiler,  Gorton,  34. 
Boilers,  grate  surface  of,  41. 
Boiler,  Haxtun,  29. 
Boiler,  locomotive  fire-box,  31. 
Boiler,  manner  of  bricking  locomo- 
tive fire-box,  43,  44. 
Boiler,  Mills,  30. 

Boiler,  original  type  of  Furman,  32. 
Boiler,  Page  Safety  Sectional,  32. 
Boilers,  proper  attention  to,  330,  331. 
Boilers,  removing  oil  and  dirt  from, 

331,  332. 
Boiler  setting,  42. 
Boiler,  shell  of  Dunning,  28. 
Boiler,   standard  type  of  horizontal 

tubular,  27. 

Boiler  surfaces  and  settings,  40. 
Boiler,  volunteer,  32. 
Boilers,  water  surface  of,  41. 
Boiler,  what  constitutes  a  good  one, 

38. 

Boiling  point  of  water,  347. 
Boiling  point  of  water,  table,  142. 
Boiling  points  of  fluids,  353. 
Box  base  for  direct-indirect  radiator, 

96. 

Boxing  indirect  radiators,  92,  93. 
Brass,  to  clean,  351. 
Branch  tees,  69,  71. 
Bricking    tubular    boilers,    materials 

required,  360. 
Brick  setting  tubular  boilers  with  full 

fronts,  46. 
Brick    setting    tubular    boilers    with 

half  fronts,  48. 
British  thermal  heat  unit  (B.  T.  U.), 

19. 
Bronzing,  painting,  and  decoration, 

335,  336. 


Broomell  vapor-heating  system,  178, 

181. 

Bucket  traps,  263,  264. 
Business  methods,  316,  328. 

Capacities  of  pumps,  366. 

Capacity  of  stacks,  363. 

Care  of  heating  apparatus,  329,  330. 

Care  of  tools,  333,  334. 

Casing  indirect  radiators,  92,  93. 

Cast-iron  fittings,  69. 

Cast  iron,  to  harden,  352. 

Cast-iron  fittings,  types  of,  70. 

Cast-iron  flanges,  71. 

Cast-iron  flanges,  schedule  of,  71. 

Cement  for  leaky  boilers,  350. 

Cement  for  steam  boilers,  350. 

Central  -  station   hot -water  heating, 

291,  292. 
Check  valve,  76. 
Chimney  flue,  56. 
Chimney  flue,  capacity  of,  59. 
Chimney  flue,  elements  of,  59. 
Chimney  flue,  proper  construction  of, 

56,  58. 

Chimney  flue,  table  of  sizes,  58. 
Chimneys,  tables  of  heights  and  area, 

61. 

Circles,  table  of  areas,  358. 
Circle,  to  find  area  of,  350. 
Circle,  to  find  circumference  of,  349. 
Circle,  to  find  diameter  of,  350. 
Circulation  of  air  by  direct  radiator, 

98. 
Circulation  of  air  by  indirect  radiator, 

99. 

Circumference  of  circle,  349. 
Coal,  air  necessary  to  burn,  349. 
Coal,  heat  units  in,  348. 
Coal,  weight  of  anthracite,  348. 
Coal,  weight  of  bituminous,  348. 


INDEX 


393 


Coil  stands  and  hook  plates,  90. 

Coils  for  tanks,  sizes  of,  198. 

Comparison  of  thermometric  scales, 
357. 

Condensing  engines,  water  required, 
349. 

Contracts,  special  features  of,  328. 

Contracts,  specifications  of,  319,  328. 

Cost,  manner  of  estimating,  317,  318. 

Cost  of  coal  for  steam  power,  362. 

Cost  of  mechanical  heating  and  ven- 
tilation, 255,  257. 

Couplings,  wrought-iron,  malleable, 
68. 

Covering,  pipe  and  boiler,  293,  298. 

Cross-connecting  boilers,  206,  209. 

Cylindrical  tank,  to  find  capacity  of, 
348,  351. 

Damper,  double,  for  round  flue,  314. 

Damper,  double,  for  square  flue,  314. 

Damper  regulator,  automatic,  50,  53, 
300. 

Damper  regulator,  low-pressure,  51. 

Damper  regulator,  manner  of  con- 
necting, 52. 

Decimal  equivalents  of  an  inch,  table 
of,  367. 

Density  of  air  at  various  tempera- 
tures, 382. 

Diameter  of  circle,  350. 

Diameter  of  pipes,  table  for  equal- 
izing, 378. 

Diaphragm  motor,  powers,  304. 

Diaphragm  radiator  valve,  303,  313. 

D.   &  R.  regulator,  307,  308. 

Direct-indirect  radiators,  95,  96. 

Dirt,  removing  from  boilers,  331, 
332. 

District  heating,  288,  292. 

Domestic  water  heating,  194,  198. 


Ducts,  sizes  of,  for  indirect  heating, 

94. 
Dunham    vacuo-vapor    system,   183, 

187. 

Early  history  of  heating,  15. 
Early  history  of  ventilation,  16. 
Early  types  of  boilers,  26. 
Eccentric  fittings,  use  of,  114. 
Efficiency    determined     by    summer 

tests,  332,  333. 
Engines  for  blower  systems,  types  of, 

245,  248. 

Equalizing  diameter  of  pipes,  378. 
Estimate,  form  of,  317,  318. 
Estimating,  316,  319. 
Estimating  radiation,  97,  102. 
Estimating  radiation  for  greenhouses, 

157,  158. 
Estimating  radiation,  rules  for,  100, 

102. 

Evolution    of    artificial    heating    ap- 
paratus, 22. 
Exhaust  steam,  heating  capacity  of, 

118. 

Exhaust-steam  heating,  115,  119. 
Exhaust-steam     heating,     necessary 

fixtures,  116. 

Exhaust-steam  heating,  plan  of,  117. 
Exhaust-vacuum  systems,  165,  173. 
Expansion  of  air,  349. 
Expansion  of  pipe,  to  find,  351. 
Expansion  of  water,  347. 
Expansion  tank,  125,  127. 
Expansion  tank,  automatic,  127. 
Expansion-tank     connections,     126, 

127,  134,  135,  142,  143. 
Expansion  tank,  table  of  sizes,  128. 
Expansion  tank,  to  determine  size, 

349. 
Expansion  traps,  263. 


394 


INDEX 


Explosion  of  boilers,  340,  341. 
Explosions,  prevention  of,  341,  342. 

Factory  heating  and  ventilating,  253, 

255. 
Fan  engines  for  blower  systems,  245, 

248. 
Fans   for    blowing    and    exhausting, 

238,  240. 

Features  of  contracts,  328. 
Feed-water  heaters,  275,  276. 
Feed-water  required  by  boilers,  364. 
Firing  tools  and  brushes,  54. 
Fittings,  cast-iron,  69. 
Fittings,  eccentric,  114. 
Flanges,  cast-iron,  70,  71. 
Float  traps,  264,  265. 
Floor  and  ceiling  plates,  149. 
Flues,  area  required  for  ventilation, 

373,  376. 

Fluids,  boiling  points  of,  353. 
Forms  of  radiating  surfaces,  81. 
Fuel,  consumption  of,  348. 
Fusible  plug,  54. 
Future  of  vacuum  heating,  187,  188. 

Galvanized  iron  pipe,  weight  of,  377, 
389. 

Gate  valve,  74,  75,  76. 

Gauge,  altitude,  146. 

Gauge  glass  and  water  column,  53, 
54. 

Gauges  and  their  fractional  equiva- 
lents, 351. 

Globe  valve,  74,  75,  76. 

Gorton  system  vacuum  heating,  181, 
183. 

Governor  for  pump,  280,  281. 

Grate  surface  in  boilers,  41. 

Greenhouse  heating,  155,  162. 

Greenhouse  piping,  methods  of,  159, 
162. 


Guaranty,  bad  features  of,  337,  340. 
Guaranty,  forms  of,  337,  340. 

Healthfulness  of  furnace  heating  vs. 

steam  or  hot  water,  25. 
Heart  of  the  heating  system,  26. 
Heat  absorbed  by  bodies,  21. 
Heat,  how  measured,  19. 
Heat,  how  transferred,  18,  20. 
Heat,  nature  of,  18. 
Heat  unit,  British  thermal  unit,  19. 
Heat  units  in  anthracite  coal,  348. 
Heat,  utilizing  waste,  342,  346. 
Heaters,  feed-water,  275,  276. 
Heaters  for  blower  systems,  types  of, 

239,  245. 
Heating  apparatus,  average  life  and 

cost,  24. 

Heating  apparatus,  care  of,  329,  330. 
Heating,  artificial  methods  of,  23. 
Heating  by  exhaust  steam,  115,  119. 
Heating  by  hot  water,  120,  141. 
Heating  by  steam,  103,  114. 
Heating  capacity  of  exhaust  steam, 

118. 
Heating  capacity  of  tubular  boilers, 

349. 

Heating,  district  method,  288,  292. 
Heating,  early  history  of,  15. 
Heating  greenhouses,  155,  162. 
Heating,  miscellaneous,  189,  198. 
Heating    of    swimming    pools,    189, 

194. 
Heating  system,  Broomell  vapor,  178, 

181. 

Heating  system,  Dunham,  183,  187. 
Heating  system,  Gorton,  181,  183.  . 
Heating  system,  K-M-C  (Morgan), 

174,  175. 

Heating  system,  Paul,  168,  173. 
Heating  system,  Ryan,  178,  179. 


INDEX 


395 


Heating  system,  Trane  mercury  seal, 
175,  178. 

Heating    systems,     vacuum-exhaust, 
165,  173. 

Heating  system,  vacuum-vapor,  183. 

Heating  system,  Vacuum  Vapor  Com- 
pany, 181. 

Heating  system,  Van  Auken,  173. 

Heating  system,  vapor,  178,  180. 

Heating  system,  Webster,  165,  168. 

Heating,  vacuum  systems,  163,  188. 

Heating    and    ventilating    factories, 
253,  255. 

Heating     and     ventilating,     relative 
cost,  255,  257. 

Heating  water  for  domestic  purposes, 
194,  198. 

High  temperature  thermometer,  258. 

Honeywell  heat  generator,  150,  152. 

Hook  plates  and  coil  stands,  90. 

Horse  power,  definition  of,  19. 

Horse  power  of  belting,  368. 

Hot-blast    heating    and    ventilation, 
224,  261. 

Hot-blast    heating,  growth   and  im- 
provement, 224,  225. 

Hot-water  heaters,  35. 

Hot-water  heater,  Carton,  37. 

Hot-water  heater,  early  type  of  Gur- 
ney,  35. 

Hot-water  heater,  Hitchings,  36. 

Hot-water  heater,  improved  Gurney, 
36. 

Hot-water  heater,  perfect,  36. 

Hot-water  heater,  Spence,  35. 

Hot-water  heater,  thermo,  38. 
•Hot-water  heating,  120,  140. 

Hot-water   heating   appliances,    146, 
154. 

Hot-water    heating,    central  -  station 
method,  291,  292. 


Hot- water  heating,  methods,  121. 

Hot-water  heating,  modified  over- 
head system,  135. 

Hot-water  heating,  pipe  connections, 
132. 

Hot-water  heating,  pressure  systems, 
141,  145. 

Hot-water  heating,  size  of  main  for 
one  pipe,  139. 

Hot-water  heating,  sizes  of  mains 
two-pipe  system,  124. 

Hot-water  heating,  special  fittings, 
138. 

Hot-water  heating,  specifications  and 
bid,  324,  328. 

Hot-water  heating,  the  circuit  sys- 
tem, 136,  139. 

Hot-water  heating,  the  overhead  sys- 
tem, 128,  136. 

Hot-water  heating,  the  two-pipe  sys- 
tem, 121,  128. 

Hot- water  heating,  why  water  circu- 
lates, 139,  140. 

Hot-water  radiator  connections,  201, 
203. 

Hot-water  thermometer,  147,  148. 

Hot-water  thermometer,  method  of 
attaching,  148. 

Howard  regulator,  308,  309. 

Hygrometer,  wet  and  dry  bulb,  259, 
261. 

Importance  of  ventilation,  211,  213. 

Improper  use  of  tees,  203. 

Indirect  heating,  location  of  regis- 
ters, 91,  93. 

Indirect  heating,  sizes  of  air  ducts 
and  registers,  94. 

Indirect  heating,  surface  required, 
100,  102. 

Indirect  radiators,  84,  92,  93. 


396 


INDEX 


Indirect  radiators,  casing  of,  92,  93. 

Indirect  radiators,  method  of  sup- 
porting, 95. 

Injectors,  283,  285. 

Inlets,  location  of  those  for  fresh  air, 
221. 

Inspirators,  285,  286. 

Johnson  air  compressor,  312. 
Johnson  regulator,  312,  313. 
Johnson  system  of  temperature  reg- 
ulation, 311,  315. 

K-M-C  (Morgan)  system,  vacuum 
heating,  174,  175. 

Labor-saving  suggestions,  334,  335. 

Latent  heat  of  steam  at  various 
pressures,  359. 

Lawler  regulator,  311. 

Leaky  boilers,  cement  for,  350. 

Length  of  belts,  rule  for  determining, 
369. 

Location  of  fresh-air  inlets,  221. 

Location  of  registers,  indirect  heat- 
ing, 91,  93. 

Locating  radiating  surfaces,  91. 

Loss  of  pressure  of  air  delivery 
through  pipes,  379. 

Machinery,  to  prevent  rusting,  352. 

Marble,  to  remove  stains  from,  352. 

Measurement  of  offsets,  349. 

Measurements  for  45°  and  other  an- 
gles, 209,  210. 

Measurements  for  setting  tubular 
boilers  with  full  fronts,  45. 

Measurements  for  setting  tubular 
boilers  with  half  fronts,  47. 

Measuring  pipe  and  fittings,  72. 

Mechanical  heating  and  ventilation, 
an  ideal  system,  229,  238. 


Mechanical  heating  and  ventilation, 

capacity  required,  227,  228. 
Mechanical  heating  and  ventilation, 

methods  employed,  225,  227. 
Mechanical     ventilating     apparatus, 

details  of,  248,  252. 
Mechanical     ventilation,     American 

Blower  Co.'s  method,  234. 
Mechanical  ventilation  and  hot  blast 

heating,  224,  261. 
Mechanical     ventilation,     Buffalo 

Forge  Co.'s  method,  230,  233. 
Mechanical  ventilation,  growth  and 

improvement,  224,  225. 
Mechanical   ventilation,   New   York 

Blower  Co.'s  method,  235. 
Mechanical    ventilation,    quality    of 

air  supplied,  228,  229. 
Mechanical    ventilation,     Sturtevant 

method,  236. 

Mechanical  ventilation,  typical  meth- 
od for  schools,  238. 
Melting  points  of  metals,  353. 
Metals,  melting  points  of,  353. 
Metal,  to  inscribe,  352. 
Methods  of  artificial  heating,  23. 
Methods  of  greenhouse  piping,  159, 

162. 
Methods   of   heating   business,    316, 

328. 
Methods  of  pipe  construction,   203, 

205. 

Methods  of  ventilation,  218,  223. 
Metric  system,  table  of,  355. 
Minneapolis  regulator,  310. 
Miscellaneous,  329,  346. 
Miscellaneous  heating,  189,  198. 
Mitre  pipe  coil,  86. 
Mixing  dampers,  250,  252. 
Moisture  absorbed  by  air,  385. 
Moisture  in  the  atmosphere,  386. 


INDEX 


397 


National  regulator,  306,  307. 
Nature  of  heat,  18. 
Nipples,  table  of  sizes,  68. 
Nipples,  wrought-iron,  67. 

Offset,  measurement  of,  349. 
Oil,  removing  from  boilers,  331,  332. 
Oil  separators,  273,  275. 
One-pipe  system,  hot-water,  137, 139. 
One-pipe  system,  steam,  103,  111. 
O.  S.  hot-water  fitting,  131. 
Oxygen,  necessity  and  importance  of, 
211,  212. 

Painting,  bronzing,  and  decoration, 
335,  336. 

Paul  system,  exhaust-steam  heating, 
168,  173. 

Phelps  heat  retainer,  153,  154. 

Pipe,  63. 

Pipe  and  fittings,  method  of  measur- 
ing, 72. 

Pipe  and  radiator  connections,  199, 
210. 

Pipe,  bending,  64. 

Pipe  coils,  86,  88. 

Pipe  coils,  method  of  building,  89. 

Pipe  construction,  methods  of,  203, 
205. 

Pipe  covering,  293,  298. 

Pipe  covering,  tests,  294. 

Pipe,  expansion  of,  64,  65,  351. 

Pipe  hangers,  65. 

Pipe,  table  of  extra  strong,  361. 

Pipe,  table  of  double  extra  strong, 
361. 

Pipe,  table  of  standard  wrought-iron, 
63. 

Pipe,  threading,  64. 

Pipe,  to  ascertain  whether  wrought- 
iron  or  steel,  66. 


Pipe,  wrought-iron  or  steel,  66. 
Plates,  floor  and  ceiling,  149. 
Powers  system  heat  regulation,  303, 

305. 

Pressure  appliances,  150,  154. 
Pressure  of  water,  348. 
Prevention  of  explosions,  341,  342. 
Properties  of  saturated  steam,  359. 
Proposal  and  bid,  319,  328. 
Pulleys,  size  and  speed  of,  350. 
Pump,  diameters  and  capacities,  366. 
Pump  governors  and  regulators,  280, 

281. 

Pumps,  steam,  276,  279. 
Pumps,  vacuum,  279,  280. 

Radiating  power  of  bodies,  20. 
Radiating  surfaces,  forms  of,  81. 
Radiating  surfaces,  pipe  coils,  86,  88. 
Radiating  surfaces,  proper  location, 

91. 

Radiation  for  greenhouses,  157,  158. 
Radiation,  rules  for  estimating,  100, 

102. 
Radiator  and  pipe  connections,  199, 

210. 
Radiator  connections,  hot-water,  201, 

203. 
Radiator    connections,    steam,    199, 

201. 

Radiators,  decoration  of,  335,  336. 
Radiators,  direct-indirect,  95,  96. 
Radiators,  indirect,  84,  92,  93. 
Radiators,  types  of,  81,  85. 
Radiator  valves,  74. 
Radiators,  wall,  85. 
Radiators,  window,  85. 
Reducing  pressure  valves,  283. 
Registers  for  indirect  heating,   sizes 

of,  94. 
Regulator,  D.   &  R.,  307,  308. 


398 


INDEX 


Regulator,  Howard,  308,  309. 

Regulator,  Imperial  Climax,  300. 

Regulator,  Johnson,  312,  313. 

Regulator,  Lawler,  311. 

Regulator,  Minneapolis,  310. 

Regulator,  National,  306,  307. 

Regulator,  Powers,  301,  302. 

Regulators,  pump,  280,  281. 

Relation  between  temperature  of 
feed  water  and  evaporative  capac- 
ity of  boiler,  364. 

Relative  pressure,  velocity  and  weight 
of  air,  383. 

Removing  grease  stains  from  mar- 
ble, 352. 

Removing  oil  and  dirt  from  boilers, 
331,  332. 

Removing  rust  from  steel,  352. 

Required  flue  area  for  given  velocity 
and  air  change,  373. 

Required  flue  area  for  passage  of  air, 
374,  375,  376. 

Required  quantity  of  feed  water  to 
supply  boiler,  364. 

Return  bend  pipe  coil,  87. 

Return  branch  tee  coil,  87. 

Revolutions  of  pulleys,  to  find,  350. 

Round  galvanized  iron  pipe  and  el- 
bows, weight  of,  377. 

Rule  for  calculating  size  and  speed 
of  pulleys,  350. 

Rules  for  estimating  radiation  for 
greenhouses,  157,  158. 

Rules,  tables,  and  other  information, 
347,  389. 

Ryan  system,  vacuum  heating,  178, 
179. 

Safety  valves,  49. 

Safety  valves  on  expansion  tanks, 
143,  144. 


Saturated  steam,  properties  of,  359. 

Schoolhouse  heating  and  ventilating,, 
typical  methods,  230,  238. 

Schoolhouse  ventilation,  cost  of,  256, 
257. 

Schoolhouse  ventilation,  Massachu- 
setts laws  for,  215. 

Separators,  steam  and  oil,  273,  275. 

Setting  direct-indirect  radiators,  95. 

Setting  tubular  boilers,  45,  48. 

Shell  of  Dunning  boiler,  28. 

Sizes  of  steam  mains,  114. 

Special  features  of  contracts,  328. 

Specific  gravity  of  steam,  349. 

Specifications  for  hot-water  heating, 
324,  328. 

Specifications,  for  steam  heating,  319, 
323. 

Stacks,  capacity  of,  363. 

Standard  flanges,  schedule  of,  71. 

Standard  type  of  tubular  boilers,  27. 

Standard  pipe,  table  of,  63,  361. 

Steam  appliances,  262,  287. 

Steam  for  cooking  and  manufactur- 
ing, 198. 

Steam  gauge,  50. 

Steam  gauge,  low-pressure,  51. 

Steam  heating,  advantages  of,  114. 

Steam-heating  apparatus,  103,  114. 

Steam  heating,  exhaust,  115,  119. 

Steam  heating,  methods  of,  103,  104. 

Steam  heating,  specifications  and  bid^ 
319,  323. 

Steam  heating,  the  circuit  system,, 
104. 

Steam  heating,  the  divided  circuit 
system,  107,  109. 

Steam  heating,  the  one-pipe  system 
with  dry  returns,  108,  110. 

Steam  heating,  the  overhead  system,. 
108,  111. 


INDEX 


399 


Steam  heating,  the  two-pipe  system, 

112,  113. 

Steam  mains,  sizes  of,  114. 
Steam  power,  cost  of  coal,  362. 
Steam  pumps,  276,  279. 
Steam-radiator  connections,  199,  201. 
Steam    regulator,    Imperial    Climax, 

300. 

Steam  separators,  273,  275. 
Steam,  specific  gravity  of,  349. 
Steam,  table  of  temperatures,  359. 
Steam  traps,  262,  266. 
Steam,  value  of  exhaust,  115. 
Steel,  to  remove  rust  from,  352. 
Suggestions  for  saving  labor,  334,  335. 
Summer  care  of  heating  apparatus, 

329,  330. 
Summer  tests  to  determine  efficiency, 

332,  333. 

Supporting  indirect  radiators,  95. 
Swimming  pools,  heating  of,  189,  194. 

Table  I. — Radiating  power  of  bodies, 
20. 

Table  II. — Measurements  for  setting 
tubular  boilers  with  full  fronts,  45. 

Table  III. — Measurements  for  setting 
tubular  boilers  with  half  fronts,  47. 

Table  IV. — Sizes  of  chimneys,  58. 

Table  V.— Heights  of  chimneys,  61. 

Table  VI. — Measurements  of  stand- 
ard and  wrought-iron  pipe,  63. 

Table  VII. — Expansion  of  wrought- 
iron  pipe,  65. 

Table  VIII. — Length  and  size  of 
wrought-iron  nipples,  69. 

Table  IX. — Schedule  of  standard 
flanges,  71. 

Table  X. — Indirect  work:  sizes  cold 
and  hot  air  ducts,  94. 

Table  XI. — Sizes  of  steam  mains,  114. 


Table  XII. — Sizes  of  mains — two- 
pipe  hot-water  system,  124. 

Table  XIII. — Expansion  tank  sizes, 
128. 

Table  XIV. — Sizes  of  mains  for  one- 
pipe  hot  wrater,  139. 

Table  XV. — Boiling  temperatures  of 
water  at  various  pressures,  142. 

Table  XVI.— Temperatures— green- 
house heating,  158. 

Table  XVII.— Schedule  of  water 
temperatures — greenhouse  heating, 
158. 

Table  XVIII. — Capacities  of  hot- 
water  heaters  for  swimming  pools, 
192. 

Table  XIX.— Sizes  of  tanks  and 
heaters — domestic  hot-water  sup- 
ply, 197. 

Table  XX. — Sizes  of  steam  coils  for 
storage  tanks,  198. 

Table  XXI. — Measuring  45°  and 
other  angles,  210. 

Table  XXII. — Consumption  of  air 
by  various  modes  of  artificial  light- 
ing, 213. 

Table  XXIII. — Air  supply  necessary 
for  various  buildings,  214. 

Table  XXIV.— Cubic  feet  of  air  con- 
taining four  parts  of  carbonic  acid 
in  ten  thousand  supplied  per  per- 
son, 218. 

Table  XXV.— Temperature,  weight, 
and  humidity  of  air,  229. 

Table  XXVI.— Temperature  table, 
Schott's  balanced  column  system, 
291. 

Table  XXVII.— Tests  of  pipe  cover- 
ing, 294. 

Table  XX VIII  .—Tests  to  determine 
efficiency,  333. 


400 


INDEX 


Table  XXIX.— Gauges  and  their 
equivalents,  351. 

Table  XXX. — Melting  points  of  met- 
als, 353. 

Table  XXXI.— Boiling  points  of 
fluids,  353. 

Table  XXXII. — Weights  and  meas- 
ures, 354. 

Table  XXXIII.— Metric  system  of 
weights  and  measures,  355. 

Table  XXXIV. — Minimum  and 
mean  temperatures  of  various 
cities,  356. 

Table  XXXV. — Comparison  of  ther- 
mometric  scales,  357. 

Table  XXXVI.— Area  of  circles  and 
sides  of  squares,  358. 

Table  XXXVII. — Temperature  of 
steam  at  various  pressures,  359. 

Table  XXXVIII.— Properties  of  sat- 
urated steam,  359. 

Table  XXXIX.— Materials  for  brick- 
work of  tubular  boilers,  360. 

Table  XL.— Standard  pipe,  361. 

Table  XLI. — Cost  of  coal  for  steam 
power,  362. 

Table  XLIL— Capacities  of  stacks, 
363. 

Table  XLIIL— Relation  between 
temperature  of  feed  water  and 
evaporative  capacity  of  boiler,  364. 

Table  XLIV. — Feed  water  required 
by  boiler,  364. 

Table  XLV. — Vacuum,  pressure  and 
temperature,  etc.,  365. 

Table  XLVI. — Pump  diameters  and 
capacities  in  gallons,  366. 

Table  XL VII. —Decimal  equivalents 
of  an  inch,  367. 

Table  XLVIII. — Horse  power  of  a 
leather  belt  one  inch  wide,  368. 


Table  XLIX. — Number  of  square 
inches  of  flue  area  required  per 
1,000  cubic  feet  of  contents  for 
given  velocity  and  air  change,  373. 

Table  L. — Flue  area  required  for  the 
passage  of  a  given  volume  of  air  at 
a  given  velocity,  374. 

Table  LI. — Flue  area  required  for 
the  passage  of  a  given  volume  of 
air  at  a  given  velocity  (continued), 
375. 

Table  LII. — Flue  area  required  for 
the  passage  of  a  given  volume  of 
air  at  a  given  velocity  (continued), 
376. 

Table  LIIL— Weight  of  round  gal- 
vanized iron  pipe  and  elbows,  of 
the  proper  gauges  for  heating  and 
ventilating  systems,  377. 

Table  LIV. — Equalizing  the  diam- 
eters of  pipes,  378. 

Table  LV. — Air:  Loss  of  pressure  in 
ounces  per  square  inch  for  varying 
velocities  and  varying  diameters  of 
pipes,  379. 

Table  LVL— Number  of  cubic  feet 
of  dry  air  that  may  be  heated 
through  1°  (F.)  by  the  condensation 
of  one  pound  of  steam,  380. 

Table  LVII. — Number  of  thermal 
units  contained  in  one  pound  of 
water,  381. 

Table  LVIII.— Volume  and  density 
of  air  at  various  temperatures,  382. 

Table  LIX.— Influence  of  the  tem- 
perature of  air  upon  the  conditions 
of  its  movement,  383. 

Table  LX. — Velocity  created,  volume 
discharged  and  horse  power  re- 
quired when  air  under  a  given 
pressure  in  ounces  per  square  inch 


INDEX 


401 


is  allowed  to  escape  in  the  atmos- 
phere, 384. 

Table  LXI.— Moisture  absorbed  by 
air,  385. 

Table  LXII. — Moisture  in  the  atmos- 
phere, 386. 

Table  LXIII. — Volume  of  air  neces- 
sary to  maintain  a  standard  of  pur- 
ity, 387. 

Table  LXIV. — Pressure  in  inches  of 
water  and  corresponding  pressure 
in  ounces,  with  velocities  of  air 
due  to  pressures,  388. 

Table  LXV. — Pressure  in  ounces  per 
square  inch  with  velocities  of  air 
due  to  pressures,  388. 

Table  LX VI. —Weights  of  galvan- 
ized iron  pipe  per  lineal  foot,  389. 

Table  of  weights  and  measures,  354. 

Tables,  rules  and  other  information, 
347,  389. 

Tank  capacities,  domestic  water  heat- 
ing, 197. 

Tees,  improper  use  of,  203. 

Temperature  of  steam,  table  of,  359. 

Temperature  regulation  and  heat 
control,  299,  315. 

Temperatures  of  various  cities  in  the 
United  States,  356. 

Thermal  units  in  one  pound  of  water, 
381. 

Thermometer,  high  temperature,  258. 

Thermometer,  hot-water,  147,  148. 

Thermometric  scales,  comparison  of, 
357. 

Thermostat,  Howard,  308. 

Thermostat,  Johnson,  312. 

Thermostat,  Lawler,  311. 

Thermostat,  Minneapolis,  310. 

Thermostat,  National,  306. 

Thermostat,  Powers,  301. 


To  clean  brass,  351. 

To  harden  cast  iron,  352. 

To  prevent  machinery  from  rusting, 
352. 

To  remove  rust  from  steel,  352. 

To  remove  stains  from  marble,  352. 

Tools,  care  of,  333,  334. 

Trane  mercury  seal  system,  vacuum 
heating,  175,  178. 

Traps,  bucket,  263,  264. 

Traps,  expansion,  263. 

Traps,  float,  264,  265. 

Traps,  return,  266,  273. 

Tubular  boilers,  heating  capacity  of, 
349. 

Tubular  boilers,  materials  for  brick- 
ing, 360. 

Tubular  boilers,  measurements  for 
setting,  45,  47. 

Tubular  boilers,  plan  of  brick  setting, 
46,  48. 

Underground  pipe,  covering  for,  296, 

297. 

Useful  information,  347,  389. 
Utilizing  waste  heat,  342,  346. 

Vacuum  exhaust  systems,  165,  173. 
Vacuum  heating,  future  of,  187,  188. 
Vacuum  heating  systems,  163,  188. 
Vacuum,  pressure  and  temperature, 

table  of,  365. 

Vacuum  pumps,  279,  280. 
Vacuum,   relief  on  expansion  tank, 

143,  144. 
Vacuum  Vapor  Company's  system, 

181. 

Vacuum- vapor  heating  system,  183. 
Valves,  73. 
Valves,  angle,  74. 
Valves,  back-pressure,  282. 


402 


INDEX 


Valve,  check,  76. 

Valve,  diaphragm  radiator,  303,  313. 

Valves,  gate,  74,  75,  76. 

Valves,  radiator,  74. 

Valves,  reducing  pressure,  283. 

Valves,  safety,  49. 

Valve,  straightway  hot-water,  131. 

Value  of  exhaust  steam,  115. 

Van  Auken  system,  vacuum  heating, 
173. 

Vapor  heating  system,  178,  180. 

Velocity  of  air  due  to  pressures, 
388. 

Ventilation,  211,  223. 

Ventilation,  air  necessary  for,  213, 
218. 

Ventilation,  early  history  of,  16. 

Ventilation,  importance  of,  211,  213. 

Ventilation,  mechanical,  224,  261. 

Ventilation,  methods  of,  218,  223. 

Ventilation,  required  area  of  flues, 
373,  376. 

Volume  of  air  at  various  tempera- 
tures, 382. 

Wall  boxes  for  direct-indirect  radia- 
tors, 95. 

Waste-heat  utilizing,  342,  346. 
Water,  boiling  point  of,  142,  347. 


Water  column  and  gauge  glass,  53, 
54. 

Water,  expansion  of,  347. 

Water  feeders,  automatic,  287. 

Water,  gallons  in  cylindrical  tank, 
348,  351. 

Wrater-line,  artificial,  205,  206. 

Water,  pressure  of,  348. 

Water,  pressure  in  inches,  388. 

Water,  pressure  in  ounces,  388. 

W'ater  required  by  condensing  en- 
gines, 349. 

Water  required  by  tubular  boilers, 
348. 

Water  surface  in  boilers,  41. 

Water,  thermal  units  in  one  pound, 
381. 

Water,  weight  of,  347. 

Weight  of  anthracite  coal,  348. 

Weight  of  bituminous  coal,  348. 

Weight  of  galvanized  iron  pipe,  377, 
389. 

Weight  of  water,  347. 

Weights  and  measures,  table  of,  354. 

Weights  and  measures,  the  metric 
system,  355. 

Webster  system,  exhaust-steam  heat- 
ing, 165,  168. 

W^hy  hot  water  circulates,  139,  140. 


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efficiency,  and  a  host  of  other  information  in  this  connection.  Pneumatic  tools  and  their 
uses  receive  ample  attention,  as  do  the  sand-blast,  pneumatic  tube  transmission,  and  other 
applications,  such  as  raising  water,  ice  machines  and  liquid  air,  while  the  air  brake  and  air 
signal  also  come  in  for  their  share.  Taken  as  a  whole  it  may  be  called  an  encyclopaedia  of 
compressed  air.  It  is  written  by  an  expert,  who,  in  its  825  pages,  has  dealt  with  the  sub- 
ject in  a  comprehensive  manner,  no  phase  of  it  being  omitted.  545  illustrations,  820 
pages.  Price,  $5.00. 

HISCOX.     Horseless  Vehicles,  Automobiles  and  Motor  Cycles,  Operated 
by  Steam,  Hydro-Carbon,  Electric,  and  Pneumatic  Motors 

A  practical  treatise  of  459  pages  and  316  illustrations  for  Automobilists,  Manufacturers, 
Capitalists,  Investors,  Promoters,  and  every  one  interested  in  the  development,  cr.re,  and 
use  of  the  Automobile. 

Nineteen  chapters.     Large  8vo.     316  illustrations.     460  pages.     Cloth,  $1.50. 

HISCOX.     Mechanical  Movements,  Powers,  and  Devices 

This  work  of  400  pages  contains  1,800  specially  made  illustrations  with  descriptive 
text.  It  is  a  Dictionary  of  Mechanical  Movements,  Powers,  Devices,  and  Appliances, 
embracing  an  illustrated  description  of  the  greatest  variety  of  Mechanical  Movements  and 
Devices  in  any  language.  A  new  work  on  illustrated  Mechanics,  Mechanical  Movements 
and  Devices,  covering  nearly  the  whole  range  of  the  practical  and  inventive  field  for  the 
use  of  Machinists,  Mechanics,  Inventors,  Engineers,  Draughtsmen.  Students,  and  all  others 
interested  in  any  way  in  the  devising  and  operation  of  mechanical  works  of  any  kind.  $3.00. 


Publications  of  The  Norman  W.  Henley  Publishing  Co. 

HISCOX.     Mechanical  Appliances,  Mechanical  Movements  and  Novelties 
of  Construction 

The  many  editions  through  which  the  first  volume  of  "Mechanical  Movements"  has 
passed  are  more  than  a  sufficient  encouragement  to  warrant  the  publication  of  a  second 
volume  of  400  pages,  containing  1,000  larger  and  specially-made  illustrations,  which  are 
more  special  in  scope  than  those  in  the  first  volume,  inasmuch  as  they  deal  with  the  pecul- 
iar requirements  of  the  various  arts  and  manufactures,  and  more  detailed  in  their  ex- 
planations, because  of  the  greater  complexity  of  the  machinery  illustrated  and  described. 
$3.00. 

HISCOX.     Modern  Steam  Engineering  in  Theory  and  Practice 

This  book  has  been  specially  prepared  for  the  use  of  the  modern  steam  engineer,  the 
technical  students,  and  all  who  desire  the  latest  and  most  reliable  information  on  steam 
and  steam  boilers,  the  machinery  of  power,  the  steam  turbine,  electric  power  and  lighting 
plants,  etc.  450  octavo  pages,  400  detailed  engravings.  $3.00. 

;  HORNER.     Modern  Milling  Machines:  Their  Design,  Construction  and 
Operation 

This  work  of  304  pages  is  fully  illustrated  and  describes  and  illustrates  the  Milling 
Machine  from  its  early  conception  to  the  present  time.  $4.00. 

HORNER.     Practical  Metal  Turning 

A  work  covering  the  modern  practice  of  machining  metal  parts  in  the  lathe.  Fully- 
illustrated.  $3.50. 

HORNER.     Tools  for  Machinists  and  Wood  Workers,  Including  Instru- 
ments of  Measurment 

A  practical  work  of  340  pages  fully  illustrated,  giving  a  general  description  and  classi- 
fication of  tools  for  machinists  and  woodworkers.  $3.50. 

Inventor's  Manual ;    How  to  Make  a  Patent  Pay 

This  is  a  book  designed  as  a  guide  to  inventors  in  perfecting  their  inventions,  taking 
out  their  patents  and  disposing  of  them.  119  pages.  Cloth,  Si.oo. 

KRAUSS.     Linear  Perspective  Self-Taught 

The  underlying  principle  by  which  objects  may  be  correctly  represented  in  perspec- 
tive is  clearly  set  forth  in  this  book ;  everything  relating  to  the  subject  is  shown  in  suitable 
diagrams,  accompanied  by  full  explanations  in  the  text.  Price  $2.50. 

LE  VAN.     Safety  Valves;    Their  History,  Invention,  and  Calculation 

Illustrated  by  69  engravings.      151  pages.     $1.50. 

LEWES  AND  BRAME.     Laboratory  Note  Book 

A  practical  treatise  prepared  for  the  Chemical  Student.    170  pages.     Cloth,  Si.oo. 
MATHOT.     Modern  Gas  Engines  and  Producer  Gas  Plants 

A  practical  treatise  of  320  pages,  fully  illustrated  by  175  detailed  illustrations,  setting 
forth  the  principles  of  gas  engines  and  producer  design,  the  selection  and  installation  of 
an  engine,  conditions  of  perfect  operation,  producer-gas  engines  and  their  possibilities, 
the  care  of  gas  engines  and  producer-gas  plants,  with  a  chapter  on  volatile  hydrocarbon 
and  oil  engines.  $2.50. 

MEINHARDT.     Practical  Lettering  and  Spacing 

Shows  a  rapid  and  accurate  method  of  becoming  a  good  letterer  with  a  little  practice. 
Oblong.  Paper  cover.  60  cents. 

PARSELL  &  WEED.     Gas  Engine  Construction 

A  practical  treatise  describing  the  theory  and  principles  of  the  action  of  gas  engines 
of  various  types,  and  the  design  and  construction  of  a  half-horse-power  gas  engine,  with 
illustrations  of  the  work  in  actual  progress,  together  with  dimensioned  working  drawings 
giving  clearly  the  sizes  of  the  various  details.  Third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Twen- 
ty-five chapters.  Large  8vo.  Handsomely  illustrated  and  bound.  300  pages.  $2.50. 

PERRIGO.     Modern  Machine  Shop  Construction,  Equipment  and  Man- 
agement 

The  only  work  published  that  describes  the  Modern  Machine  Shop  or  Manufacturing 
Plant  from  the  time  the  grass  is  growing  on  the  site  intended  lor  it  until  the  finished  prod- 
uct is  shipped.  By  a  careful  study  of  its  chapters  the  practical  man  may  economically 
build,  efficiently  equip,  and  successfully  manage  the  modern  machine  shop  or  manufact- 
uring establishment.  Just  the  book  needed  by  those  contemplating  the  erection  of 
modern  shop  buildings,  the  rebuilding  and  reorganization  of  old  ones,  or  the  introduction 
of  Modern  Shop  Methods,  Time  and  Cost  Systems.  It  is  a  book  written  and  illustrated 
oy  a  practical  shop  man  for  practical  shop  men  who  are  too  busy  to  read  theories  and  want 
iacts.  It  is  the  most  complete  all-around  book  of  its  kind  ever  published.  400  large 
quarto  pages,  225  original  and  specially-made  illustrations.  $5.00. 


Publications  of  The  Norman  W.  Henley  Publishing  Co. 

PERRIGO.      Modern  American  Lathe  Practice 

A  new  book  describing  and  illustrating  the  very  latest  practice  in  lathe  and  boring 
mill  operations,  as  well  as  the  construction  of  and  latest  developments  in  the  manufact- 
ure of  these  important  classes  of  machine  tools.  300  pages,  fully  illustrated.  $2.50. 

REAGAN,  JR.     Electrical   Engineers'    and   Students'  Chart  and   Hand- 
Book  of  the  Brush  Arc  Light  System 

Illustrated.     Bound  in  cloth,  with  celluloid  chart  in  pocket.     50  cents. 
SAUNIER.     Watchmaker's  Hand-Book 

Just  issued,  7th  edition.  Contains  498  pages  and  is  a  workshop  companion  for  those 
engaged  in  watchmaking  and  allied  mechanical  arts.  250  engravings  and  14  plates.  $3.00. 

SLOANE.     Electricity  Simplified 

The  object  of  "Electricity  Simplified"  is  to  make  the  subject  as  plain  as  possible  and 
to  show  what  the  modern  conception  of  electricity  is.  158  pages.  Illustrated.  Twelfth 
edition.  $1.00. 

SLOANE.     How  to  Become  a  Successful  Electrician 

It  is  the  ambition  of  thousands  of  young  and  old  to  become  electrical  engineers.  Not 
everyone  is  prepared  to  spend  several  thousand  dollars  upon  a  college  course,  even  if  the 
three  of  four  years  requisite  are  at  their  disposal.  It  is  possible  to  become  an  electrical 
engineer  without  this  sacrifice,  and  this  work  is  designed  to  tell  "How  to  Become  a  Suc- 
cessful Electrician"  without  the  outlay  usually  spent  in  acquiring  the  profession.  Twelfth 
edition.  189  pages.  Illustrated.  Cloth,  $1.00. 

SLOANE.     Arithmetic  of  Electricity 

A  practical  treatise  on  electrical  calculations  of  all  kinds,  reduced  to  a  series  of  rules. 
all  of  the  simplest  forms,  and  involving  only  ordinary  arithmetic;  each  rule  illustrated  by 
one  or  more  practical  problems,  with  detailed  solution  of  each  one.  Nineteenth  edition. 
Illustrated.  138  pages.  Cloth,  $1.00. 

SLOANE.     Electrician's  Handy  Book 

An  up-to-date  work  covering  the  subiect  of  practical  electricity  in  all  its  branches, 
being  intended  for  the  every-day  working  electrician.  The  latest  and  best  authority  on 
all  branches  of  applied  electricity.  Pocketbook  size.  Handsomely  bound  in  leather, 
with  title  and  edges  in  gold.  800  pages.  500  illustrations.  Price,  $3.50. 

SLOANE.     Electric  Toy  Making,  Dynamo  Building,  and  Electric  Motor 
Construction 

This  work  treats  of  the  making  at  home  of  electrical  toys,  electrical  apparatus,  motors, 
dynamos,  and  instruments  in  general,  and  is  designed  to  bring  within  the  reach  of  young 
and  old  the  manufacture  of  genuine  and  useful  electrical  appliances.  Eighteenth  edition. 
Fully  illustrated.  140  pages.  Cloth,  $1.00 

SLOANE.     Rubber  Hand  Stamps  and  the  Manipulation  of  India  Rubber 

A  practical  treatise  on  the  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  rubber  articles.  146  pages. 
Second  edition.  Cloth.  $1.00. 

SLOANE.     Liquid  Air  and  the  Liquefaction  of  Gases 

Containing  the  full  theory  of  the  subject  and  giving  the  entire  history  of  liquefaction 
of  gases  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present.  It  shows  how  liquid  air,  like  water,  is 
carried  hundreds  of  miles  and  is  handled  in  open  buckets.  It  tells  what  may  be  expected 
from  it  in  the  near  future.  365  pages,  with  many  illustrations.  Handsomely  bound  in 
buckram.  Second  edition.  $2.00. 

SLOANE.     Standard  Electrical  Dictionary 

A  practical  handbook  of  reference,  containing  definitions  of  about  5,000  distinct  words, 
terms,  and  phrases.  An  entirely  new  edition,  brought  up  to  date  and  greatly  enlarged. 
Complete,  concise,  convenient.  682  pages.  393  illustrations.  Handsomely  bound  in 
cloth.  8vo.  $3.00. 

STARBUCK.     Modern  Plumbing  Illustrated 

A  comprehensive  and  up-to-date  work  illustrating  and  describing  the  Drainage  and 
Ventilation  of  dwellings,  apartments,  and  public  buildings,  etc.  The  very  latest  and  most 
approved  methods  in  all  branches  of  sanitary  installation  are  given.  Adopted  by  the 
United  States  Government  in  its  sanitary  work  in  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Philippines, 
and  by  the  principal  boards  of  health  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  standard 
book  for  master  plumbers,  architects,  builders,  plumbing  inspectors,  boards  of  health, 
boards  of  plumbing  examiners,  and  for  the  property  owner,  as  well  as  for  the  workman 
and  his  apprentice.  300  pages.  50  full-page  illustrations.  $4.00. 

USHER.     The  Modern  Machinist 

A  practical  treatise  embracing  the  most  approved  methods  of  modern  machine-shop 
practice,  and  the  applications  of  recent  improved  appliances,  tools,  and  devices  for  facili- 
tating, duplicating,  and  expediting  the  construction  of  machines  and  their  parts.  A  new 
book  from  cover  to  cover.  Fifth  edition.  257  engravings.  322  pages.  Cloth,  $2.50. 


Publications  of  The  Norman  W.  Henley  Publishing  Co. 

VAN  DERVOORT.     Modern  Machine  Shop  Tools ;  Their  Construction, 
Operation,  and  Manipulation,  Including  Both  Hand  and  Machine  Tools 

An  entirely  new  and  fully  illustrated  work  of  555  pages  and  673  illustrations,  describ- 
ing in  every  detail  the  construction,  operation,  and  manipulation  of  both  Hand  and  Machine 
Tools;  being  a  work  of  practical  instruction  in  all  classes  of  machine-shop  practice.  In- 
cluding chapters  on  filing,  fitting,  and  scraping  surfaces;  on  drills,  reamers,  taps,  and  dies; 
the  lathe  and  its  tools;  planers,  shapers,  and  their  tools;  milling  machines  and  cutters; 
gear  cutters  and  gear  cutting;  drilling  machines  and  drill  work;  grinding  machines  and 
their  work;  hardening  and  tempering;  gearing,  belting,  and  transmission  machinery ;  useful 
data  and  tables.  Fourth  edition.  $4.00. 

WALLIS-  TAYLOR.     Pocket  Book  of  Refrigeration  and  Ice  Making 

This  is  one  of  the  latest  and  most  comprehensive  reference  books  published  on  the  sub- 
ject of  refrigeration  and  cold  storage.  It  explains  the  properties  and  refrigerating  effect 
of  the  different  fluids  in  use,  the  management  of  refrigerating  machinery  and  the  construc- 
tion and  insulation  of  cold  rooms,  with  their  required  pipe  surface  for  different  degrees  of 
cold;  freezing  mixtures  and  non-freezing  brines,  temperatures  of  cold  rooms  for  all  kinds 
of  provisions;  cold-storage  charges  for  all  classes  of  goods,  ice-making  and  storage  of  ice, 
data  and  memoranda  for  constant  reference  by  refrigerating  engineers,  with  nearly  one 
hundred  tables  containing  valuable  references  to  every  fact  and  condition  required  in  the 
instalment  and  operation  of  a  refrigerating  plant.  $1.50. 

WOOD.     Walschaert  Locomotive  Valve  Gear 

The  only  work  issued  treating  of  this  subject  of  valve  motion.     150  pages,  illustrated. 

Cloth  $1.50. 

WOODWORTH.     American  Tool  Making   and   Interchangeable  Manu- 
facturing 

A  practical  treatise  of  560  pages,  containing  600  illustrations  on  the  designing,  con- 
structing, use,  and  installation  of  tools,  jigs,  fixtures,  devices,  special  appliances,  sheet-metal 
working  processes,  automatic  mechanisms,  and  labor-saving  contrivances;  together  with 
their  use  in  the  lathe,  milling  machine,  turret  lathe,  screw  machine,  boring  mill,  power 
press,  drill,  subpress,  drop  hammer,  etc.,  for  the  working  of  metals,  the  production  of  in- 
terchangeable machine  parts,  and  the  manufacture  of  repetition  articles  of  metal.  $4.00 

WOODWORTH.     Dies,  Their    Construction   and    Use   for   the   Modem 
Working  of  Sheet  Metals 

A  complete  treatise  of  384  pages  and  505  illustrations  upon  the  designing,  constructing, 
and  use  of  tools,  fixtures,  and  devices,  together  with  the  manner  in  which  they  should  be 
used  in  the  power  press,  for  the  cheap  and  rapid  production  of  the  great  variety  of  sheet- 
metal  articles  now  in  use.  It  is  designed  as  a  guide  to  the  production  of  sheet-metal  parts 
at  the  minimum  of  cost  with  the  maximum  of  output.  The  hardening  and  tempering  of 
Press  tools  and  the  classes  of  work  which  may  be  produced  to  the  best  advantage  by  the 
use  of  dies  in  the  Power  press  are  fully  treated. 

The  engravings  show  dies,  press  fixtures,  and  sheet-metal  working  devices,  from  the 
simplest  to  the  most  intricate,  and  the  descriptions  are  so  clear  and  practical  that  all  metal- 
working  mechanics  will  be  able  to  understand  how  to  design,  construct  and  use  them.  $3.00. 

WOODWORTH.     Hardening,   Tempering,    Annealing,  and   Forging  of 
Steel 

A  new  book  containing  special  directions  for  the  successful  hardening  and  tempering 
of  all  steel  tools.  Milling  cutters,  taps,  thread  dies,  reamers,  both  solid  and  shell,  hollow 
mills,  punches  and  dies,  and  all  kinds  of  sheet-metal  working  tools,  shear  blades,  saws, 
fine  cutlery  and  metal-cutting  tools  of  all  descriptions,  as  well  as  for  all  implements  of  steel, 
both  large  and  small,  the  simplest  and  most  satisfactory  hardening  and  tempering  processes 
are  presented.  The  uses  to  which  the  leading  brands  of  steel  may  be  adapted  are  con- 
cisely presented,  and  their  treatment  for  working  under  different  conditions  explained, 
as  are  also  the  special  methods  for  the  hardening  and  tempering  of  special  brands.  320 
pages.  250  illustrations.  $2.50. 

WOODWORTH.     Punches,  Dies  and  Tools  for  Manufacturing  in  Presses 

A  work  of  500  pages,  and  illustrated  by  nearly  700  engravings,  being  an  encyclopaedia 
of  die-making,  punch-making,  die-sinking,  sheet-metal  working,  and  making  of  special  tools, 
subpresses,  devices  and  mechanical  combinations  for  punching,  cutting,  bending,  forming, 
piercing,  drawing,  compressing,  and  assembling  sheet-metal  parts  and  also  articles  of  other 
materials  in  machine  tools.  $4.00. 

WRIGHT.     Electric  Furnaces  and  Their  Industrial  Application 

This  is  a  book  which  will  prove  of  interest  to  many  classes  of  people ;  the  manufacturer 
who  desires  to  know  what  product  can  be  manufactured  successfully  in  the  electric  furnace, 
the  chemist  who  wishes  to  post  himself  on  electro-chemistry,  and  the  student  of  science 
-who  merely  looks  into  the  subject  from  curiosity.  The  book  is  not  so  scientific  as  to  be  of 
use  only  to  the  technologist,  nor  so  unscientific  as  to  suit  only  the  tyro  in  electro-chemistry; 
it  is  a  practical  treatise  of  what  has  been  done,  and  of  what  is  being  done,  both  experi- 
mentally and  commercially,  with  the  electric  furnace.  288  pages.  $3.00. 


37-7 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


00 1926 


50m-8,'26 


I  U 


